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Section 1 Week 2
Introduction to register and language in the
academic domain
Last week we looked at what it means to be an apprentice in a discipline at university and how
ASSH 101 might help you achieve your aims to write successfully in whichever disciplines you
are studying. We also introduced the concept of genre, and how the social purpose predicts the
genre. We then touched on how the language features of a text can help identify the stages that
a genre goes through to achieve its purpose.
This week we introduce another tool for thinking about knowledge, language and texts, which is
called register, which we will refer to a lot in ASSH 101 because it is helpful for understanding
and describing the language we use at university (or anywhere really!).
What is register?
Register refers to the way language use changes in different contexts. The concept of register
enables us to see how the way we speak to our friends differs from the way we speak to our
mother/father, grandparent, sibling, workmate, lecturer, partner, boss etc. Further, it allows us to
see really clearly how writing at university differs from most other types of language we use in
language we use in our everyday life. We mostly need to be taught it. We mostly need to
practice it in order to master it, but before we can do this, we need to understand what makes it
like it is.
Because there are many aspects to language, register has 3 different components. These are
called Field, Tenor and Mode
Field
Field refers to the topic or content of any instance of language or communication, be it a
conversation, an image or a written text. It also refers to the activities going on in language and
how we represent our experiences in and of the world. This is because all language is made up
of things and activities that happen in places and at times and for reasons and so on. Further,

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the way we represent these things and events differs from context to context. If you think about
how you use language in an everyday context, you probably talk about people, places and
things in very concrete and everyday terms (like what you did on the weekend where you
went, who you saw etc), whereas when you write for university, you typically write in ways that
are much more abstract and technical and removed from everyday experience. We can thus
think of field as a continuum from the spoken kind of language that occurs in the everyday world
to the very written kind of language that is technical and abstract. For example, when thinking
about Christmas shopping, we could say shopping for Christmas presents, which is down the
more concrete and everyday end of the continuum. Moving up the continuum we could talk
about retail purchases/sales over Christmas and then up the more technical and abstract end
we could say Christmas commerce.
In the academic context, Field varies according to specific subject areas. For example, what we
talk or write about in philosophy is often quite different from what we talk or write about in history
or English or creative arts etc. But it is not JUST topic. As the apprenticeship article briefly
touches on, each discipline has its own way of approaching things, especially when the topic
covers the same territory. Each discipline also has its own sets of highly specialised or
technical terms and phrases which students in the discipline have to learn. We can thus think
about disciplines as specialised fields of knowledge. And as you would know from the
apprenticeship article, part of studying history or philosophy or international studies etc involves
learning to talk and write like a historian or philosopher or international studies person etc., i.e.
a large part of learning at university involves learning the Field.
Tenor
Tenor refers to the way who we are communicating with affects our language choices. That is to
say, relationships between communicators matter because they affect the language choices we
make. If we have equal status with and are cl
shopping for
Christmas
presents
retail
purchases/
sales over
Christmas
Christmas
commerce

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as a friend, we tend to be more informal, personal and subjective with our opinions. We might
swear or use slang or even code words. In contrast to this, if there is unequal status, such as
when a student is communicating with a lecturer, we tend to be more formal and less personal.
Status, power and social distance are all dimensions of Tenor, and they change the way we use
language.
In the written academic context, language tends to be more formal, impersonal and objective
because the relationships are more socially distant, formal and hierarchical and if you are
expressing opinions in your writing, these need to be done in the appropriately formal and
detached Tenor, reflecting your status and position as an apprentice/novice/student, though this
also differs from discipline to discipline. Tenor can thus also be viewed along a continuum with
informal and personal down one end, while formal and impersonal are up the other end. And, of
course, there are shades of grey in between.
Mode
Mode refers to the way any instance of language or communication is organised to achieve its
purpose. Time, distance and the channel or mode of communication affect the way any
instance of language is organised. For example, communication that happens face-to-face and
in the here-and-now is organised quite differently from communication that happens at a
distance, like in a book; books are written at a certain time but need to be able to be read at any
iment
in an assignment. The point is that spoken language is really different from written language in
report or a book) or whether the activity occurring is accompanied by language (ie when we are
talking about the experiment while doing it). We can also think about mode as a continuum with
the most spoken-like language down one end and the most written-like language up the other:

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When we are writing in the academic context, there is distance in time and space between the
writer and reader, so the mode tends to be systematically organised. Writing needs to unfold
and progress in a particular way so that the reader can follow it. In spoken language we can be
much less organised with our language. And, of course, there are shades of grey in between
think about texting or giving a speech, which lie somewhere in between spoken and written
language.
Have a look at the two instances of language in examples a) and b) below and discuss with one
or more of your classmates what you can say about these in terms of their register make a
comment on all the three variables of Field, Tenor and Mode. Fill in the worksheet as you go.
Example a)
Yeah, I hate cockroaches: they come in whenever they bloody well feel like it and crawl all over
everything. And when you tread on them, they crunch. Yuck!
Example b)
The pest status of the cockroach is derived mainly from the aesthetic abhorrence of a
loathsome intruder.
Worksheet 2.1
Field (Think about: what is this little text excerpt about? Is it more everyday and concrete
or more technical and abstract? Which words tell you that?)
Text sample A
Field:
What in the language tells you this:
Text sample B
Field:
What in the language tells you this:

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Tenor (Think about: what is the status of the interlocutors (communicators) regarding
social distance, form/informal, equal/unequal etc? Which words show you this?)
Text sample A
Tenor:
What in the language tells you this:
Text sample B
Tenor:
What in the language tells you this:
Mode (Think about: What is the channel of communication? How spoken/written is it and
which parts of the language tell you that?)
Text sample A
Mode:
What in the language tells you this:
Text sample B
Mode:
What in the language tells you this:
Register in the academic domain
While there are many disciplinary differences in the way language is used at university, there
are also some shared language features and together these make up what we call the
academic register. In this section we are going to look at aspects of academic English which
are common to most genres that are valued at university and to most discipline areas. To do
the section of the apprenticeship article called
So how do you become and apprentice? While the apprenticeship article is a media piece, it
it has language features

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f ASSH
101, at this point we are using these texts to demonstrate some general features of academic
English that you need to master for your writing at university.
Read both texts (2.3 & 2.4) and then fill in worksheet 2.2 below.
Sample text 2.3 Less academic version of the apprenticeship article section
So how do you get to become an apprentice?
becoming an apprentice means learning to really get to know about
studying and also all the kinds of ways that you communicate in the disciplines. We are thinking
mostly about Arts and Humanities disciplines, as we are involved in a project that looks at
exactly how the language and writing makes patterns in the disciplines of Cultural Studies,
English, History, Indigenous Studies, International Studies, Linguistics, Philosophy, Politics,
Science and Technology Studies, and Sociology.
University students need to understand why they need to communicate differently in these
disciplines (such as in reports and essays). This could be because they need to argue a case or
explain why or how an event or phenomenon happened, or to report on something. Students
also need to learn about the features of different kinds of writing, such as what types of
evidence they can use to support a point, whether they can talk about personal experience, and
how they should structure and organise their texts.
Disciplines have different ideas about whether students can include their own personal
perspective and experience when writing an essay or assignment. In History, for example, the
writers to include their own perspective and personal opinions about different philosophical
arguments.
Disciplines have different ideas about what kinds of evidence students can use to support the
arguments they make in essays and assignments. In English literature, students can use quotes
from poetry, literature and plays, to support their interpretations, but in Politics, students can use
statistics as well as economic models and theories to support their arguments.
We think that the way different disciplines communicate should be made explicit and obvious for
both lecturers and students. As part of being an apprentice in a discipline, we should teach
students explicitly about what those disciplines value. We think it is really important that a
successful apprenticeship into any discipline involves students becoming aware of and
mastering the ways of communicating in that discipline. And we believe that can lead to great
marks and a future career using those skills in the real world as a professional in any field.

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Sample text 2.4 More academic version of the apprenticeship article section
Ways of becoming an apprentice
Apprenticeship refers to building proficiency in disciplinary knowledge practices and discipline-
specific ways of communicating. The focus is on Arts and Humanities disciplines, given a
research context which examines the exact nature of discourse patterns in the disciplines of
Cultural Studies, English, History, Indigenous Studies, International Studies, Linguistics,
Philosophy, Politics, Science and Technology Studies, and Sociology.
University students are required to demonstrate understanding of the purposes or genres of
different kinds of communication in these disciplines (such as reports and essays). These
purposes include arguing a case, or explaining the reasons or causes of a phenomenon, or
reporting on an issue. Students also need to master the features of written genres, such as
types of evidence and how these support argumentation, degrees to which personal experience
can be conveyed and the structure and organisation of texts.
One prime difference in the way different disciplines communicate involves the role of the writer
and whether they can include their own personal perspective and experience when writing an
essay or assignment. In History, for example, the student writer needs to take an objective
different view. Here the writer is encouraged to include their own perspective and personal
opinions on different philosophical arguments.
Another difference involves the sorts of evidence that can be used to support the arguments
made in essays and assignments in different disciplines. In English literature, evidence can take
the form of quotes from poetry, literature and plays, to support interpretations made by the
writer. In contrast, Politics uses statistics as well as economic models and theories to support
their arguments.
We argue that discourse practices within disciplines should be explicit and evident for both
lecturers and students. As part of their apprenticeship into disciplines, students should be taught
explicitly about what is valued in those disciplines. Importantly, a successful apprenticeship into
any discipline involves students becoming aware of and mastering the ways of communicating
in that discipline. And that can lead to great marks and a future career using those skills in the
real world as a professional in any field.

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Worksheet 2.2
Sample Text 2.3 Sample Text 2.4
What is the purpose of the
text?
Does the text use abstract,
specialised and technical
terms or everyday, concrete,
colloquial terms? (Give
examples)
Does the text appear to be
personal and subjective or
does it appear to be objective
and impersonal?
(Give examples)
Is the text orderly and well-
organised or disorderly and
not well-organised?
(Give examples)
Do you think the text would
be highly valued in an
academic context? Why?
Why not?
Was one easier to
understand than the other? If
so, what about the text made
that so?
with Field.
Field in the academic domain - technical and abstract language
In general, every discipline area has a set of technical terms. In Arts and humanities, these
terms can also be quite abstract as they frequently refer to ideas rather than actual concrete

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things. As we become more and more specialised within disciplines, we need to use more of
this vocabulary, because getting familiar with and being able to use it is part of the
apprenticeship into the disciplines. This can only be achieved by familiarising yourself with the
required to demonstrate your understanding of these terms within your writing. This means that
you must also be able to define them, unpack them and possibly rename them with more
familiar ones where necessary.
Worksheet 2.3 gives you an opportunity to reflect on the different word choices in the two
versions of the apprenticeship article and build your field-specific vocabulary, which, in this
case, is from the fields of linguistics and tertiary academic literacy.
Worksheet 2.3
Common sense and concrete expressions in
Text 2.3
Technical and abstract terms and expressions
in Text 2.4
Para-
graph 1
becoming an apprentice
means
learning to really get to know about the
all the kinds of ways that you communicate in
the disciplines
a project
Para-
graph 2
need to understand why they need to
communicate differently
how they should structure and organise their
texts
Para-
graph 5
the way different disciplines communicate
What do you notice has
class?)

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Grammar lesson the difference between nouns, noun groups and
nominalisation
After listening to the lecture, write down what you understand to be the definition of the following
and give an example of each:
Definition Examples
Noun
Noun group
Nominalisation
Write down a noun group with a nominalisation in it
Now complete worksheet 2.4, by listing the noun groups (which, remember, can have one or
more nouns in them) in from the first sentence in texts 2.3 and 2.4, which are reproduced for
you here:
First sentence of text 2.3:
that
studying and also all the kinds of ways that you communicate in the disciplines.
First sentence of text 2.4:
Apprenticeship refers to building proficiency in disciplinary knowledge practices and discipline-
specific ways of communicating.
Worksheet 2.4
Noun groups in the first sentence of text 3.3 Noun groups in the first sentence of text 3.4

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found in the two texts?.....................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
Tenor in the academic domain formal, impersonal and objective ways of
expressing opinion
owards the topic, though they do it in rather
different ways. Text 2.3 has a much more subjective and personal Tenor whereas text 2.4 is
much more impersonal and objective. The personal and subjective Tenor in text 2.3 comes from
the use of:
First and second person pronouns, e.g. we, you
informal lexis, e.g.
personal expressions of opinion, e.g.
Informal and spoken style conjunctions, e.g. but
even
though the specifically personal and subjective words are highlighted, you may have to write a
whole phrase or clause to capture how they change register:
Worksheet 2.5
informal, personal and subjective language in
text 2.3
more formal, impersonal and objective
equivalents in text 2.4
Para-
graph 1
When you
you might not know what it is,
we reckon

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We are thinking mostly about
Para-
graph 3
for student writers to include their own
Para-
graph 4
but
Para-
graph 5
We think that the way different disciplines
We think
And we believe
What do you notice has changed?..................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
The academic register mostly requires that we adopt a more impersonal and objective tone in
our writing, though this of course will differ from discipline to discipline. Make sure you check
with your subject lecturers and tutors about whether you can use the first-person pronoun in
your writing when you need to express your opinion. However, to achieve a more objective and
formal Tenor in our academic writing, we typically avoid using:
Words that have a strong emotional value e.g. hate, awesome etc
Direct questions to the reader e.g. Why is this so?
Contractions e.g. etc
We also need to find more formal and less subjective ways of expressing our opinion, as text
2.4 does, compared to text 2.3.
Worksheet 2.6 gives you some practice changing the more personal, subjective and informal
instances of language into more impersonal, objective and formal instances.

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Worksheet 2.6
Rewrite the sentences in two or three different ways to make them more impersonal, objective
and formal
We believe that governments are not doing enough about climate change
earn all sorts
Complete the next worksheet for homework
Worksheet 2.7
As a final activity for practising identifying informal instances of Tenor relations, go to the
apprenticeship article online and find examples of:
Examples in the original apprenticeship article
Expressions with
personal pronouns
and personal opinions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Sentences beginning
with the additive
1.
2.

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3.
Direct questions to
the reader
1.
2.
Mode in the academic domain systematically organised texts
Written academic texts are down the very written end of the mode continuum. This means they
should be really well-organised because the meaning has to flow logically from one sentence to
the next. This also means the ideas have to be introduced and developed in ways that the
most academic texts, the introduction section needs to set the whole text up by not only giving
some background information on the topic but also by previewing the points to come. Then each
paragraph or section should unfold those points logically, beginning with a topic sentence and
having well-organised supporting sentences that elaborate what was in the topic sentence. As
both texts 2.3 and 2.4 are from the written end of the mode continuum, we will use the first three
paragraphs of the apprenticeship article again to examine this textual organisation:
Sample text 2.5 the first three paragraphs of the apprenticeship article
Background
Text Preview
Study at university is all about learning new knowledge and skills,
but what about the idea of apprenticeship? We are not referring to a
trade apprenticeship here, like becoming a carpenter or plumber; we
are talking about an apprenticeship into an academic
discipline.
Definition
An academic discipline is a subject area like History, Politics or
Apprenticeship involves learning about
write like a historian or a political scientist or a sociologist.
Topic sentence
Supporting
sentences
Disciplines are quite different. Each has its own knowledge,
theories, methods of doing research, and, most importantly, experts.
Maton 2011, p. 5), and can be identified by the way they define
knowledge, what they focus on, what they consider to be true and
false, and how claims to knowledge are evaluated. Disciplines have

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human experience can be converted into knowledge, and how that
knowledge can be appr
2008, p. 191).
Organising information in texts and paragraphs
There are a variety of resources in English for organising and logically connecting information in
n ASSH 101. The one we are focusing on
Field of a text above, is
functions and draws on all three to make meaning. Abstraction is involved in Tenor as well as
textbook rather than in a friendly chat about the same thing). Likewise, abstraction is also part of
Mode is because it helps organise texts, and Mode is about how language is organised.
Because academic texts are often about ideas
touched, they can only be thought about or talked about these ideas are often presented as
abstract nouns. In the first paragraph we have the abstract nouns knowledge and
apprenticeship. As nominalisations, these can be unpacked into people doing things:
apprenticeship = being an apprentice or apprenticing oneself to someone else;
knowledge = someone knowing something about something etc.
And it is these kinds of abstractions that help organise the text. For example, apprenticeship in
the Text Preview phase starts the second sentence in the Definition phase, and also the third
Apprenticeship
It is all about how to think and reason and write like a historian or a political scientist or a
sociologist.
In this way, abstraction (as nominalisations) help hold a text together.
You can recognise most abstract nouns by their Latin-ate endings. For example:
-ship e.g. apprenticeship
-ment e.g. employment
-ity e.g. ambiguity
-tion e.g. nominalisation

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expressing more common
sentences!
se sentences into their separate clauses:
First sentence of text 2.3 as clauses:
1.
2. you might not know what it is,
3. but we reckon that [[becoming an apprentice]] means [[learning to really get to know about
disciplines]].
This first sentence is really long and has 3 main clauses and then lots of smaller clauses
licated.
First sentence of text 2.4 as clauses:
1. Apprenticeship refers to [[building proficiency in disciplinary knowledge practices]] and
discipline-specific ways of [[communicating]].
This first sentence in text 2.4, which conveys very similar meaning to the first sentence in text
2.3, has only one clause, with all the meanings compressed into it. This compression si partly
achieved though nominalisation.
Find the meanings in the sentence from text 2.4 and the matching longer bits that mean the
same thing from the sentence from text 2.3:

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Text 2.4 Text 2.3
Homework and tutorial preparation
Complete worksheet 2.7 (above) and any other unfinshed work.