Undergraduate presentation in Environmental Toxicology.

1. Petroleum, Birds, and Toothbrushes The
Effects of Oil Spills on Birds and the Idea of
Rehabilitation as Conservation
Courtney Dunn

2. Crude Oil
• Produced when
zooplankton and
algae undergo
pressure and intense
heat under
sedimentary rock
• Recovered through
drilling and refined
for multiple uses.
• 88 million barrels
consumed daily
– 1,019 barrels every
second.

4. Hazards (Before Use)
• Refining is the most energy intensive
operation in the U.S.
Contaminants in Tons Per Year
Volatile Organic Compounds: 161,207
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): 298,602
Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs): 163,589
From EPA.Gov

5. The End-Product
• Majority of crude oil used for vehicle gasoline.
– Carbon Dioxide
– Carbon Monoxide
– NOx
– VOCs

7. Waste Dumping
• Illegal but still continues
throughout the world.
• Waste (oil sludge)
emptied while en
route.
• Chronic exposure to
wildlife populations.

8. Oil Spills
Stuyvesant – Humboldt Bay, California
Castillo de Bellver – Apollo Sea, South Africa Exxon Valdez – Prince William Sound, Alaska

10. Initial Effects
• Oil severely impacts waterproofing of feathers
• High contamination can lead to “automatic”
blindness and immobility
• Can lead to hypothermia
• If not hypothermia…starvation
Wiese and Robertson 2004

12. Initial Effects
• Majority of affect bird populations will die simply from
coming in contact with oil.
• Newfoundland, Canada known for illegal ship dumping.
• One beach was surveyed for oiled birds over a period
of 20-27 weeks in the winter months from 1998-2001.
1998-1999: 61 Birds
1999-2000: 151 Birds
2000-2001: 66 Birds
Only 15% Survived
Wiese and Robertson 2004

13. Chronic Exposure
• Oiled Seabird Mortality Model (OSMM)
– Estimate mortality over time along an entire
coastline
– With this mathematical model, 315,000 Murres
estimated to die due to chronic exposure to oil
Wiese and Robertson 2004

14. Wiese and Robertson 2004

15. Wiese and Robertson 2004

16. Wiese and Robertson 2004

17. After Ingestion
• Affected systems:
– GI
– Respiratory
– Integumentary
– Central Nervous
• Aspiration among the biggest concerns
– Pneumonia
• Cerebral anoxia

18. Immune Suppression
• Decreased nutrient absorption
– Gastrointestinal inflammation
• Increased Corticoid production
– Destruction of lymphocytes
– Blockage of lymphocyte activation
Newman, et al. 1999

19. • Fibrinogen
– Clotting Factor
– Elevated 200mg/l
• 11.0% Decrease in
Hematocrit levels
– Hemalytic anemia
Newman, et al. 1999

20. Reproduction
• Magellanic Penguin populations suffer chronic exposure along
the coast of South America due to illegal dumping.
• Populations continuing to go down despite only small spills
occurring.

21. Reproduction
Fowler, et al. 1995

22. Long-Term
Common Species → Endangered
• Many marine bird populations already low from
overhunting and prey depletion from overfishing.
• African Penguins
– Already suffering from illegal egg collecting and prey
depletion
– Localized to breeding colonies
– Hard hit by two oil spills – the Apollo and Treasure

24. Rehabilitation Efforts
• 10,000 oiled penguins affected by the Apollo Spill
– 5,213 survived and were re-released
• 20,251 oiled penguins affected by the Treasure
Spill
– 18,000 rehabilitated and released
• Studies ongoing which reveal released birds
existing in breeding colonies.
Underhill, et al. 1999

29. Rehabilitation Efforts
• Good or Bad?
– Conservation with a price
• Stress hormones present in higher quantities
in rehabilitated birds compared to non-oiled
controls (Wiese and Robertson 2004).
• Bacterial infections known to spread amongst
birds in rehabilitation centers prior to release.

30. Ecosystem Disruption
African Penguin Populations
200,000 in 2000
55,000 in 2010
From International Union for the Conservation of Nature
• This example can be related to other seabird
species which serve as vital parts of their
ecosystems.
• Considerations - how are more susceptible species
being affected?
Underhill, et al. 1999

31. Questions?

32. Fowler, G., J. Wingfield, and P. Boersma. 1995. Hormonal and Reproductive Effects of Low Levels of Petroleum Fouling in Magellanic Penguins
(Spheniscus Magellanicus). The Auk 112.12 382-89.
Among the marine bird species penguins are often harmed the most when an oil spill occurs. Direct effects include ingestion of the petroleum as
well as coating of the feathers – leading to hypothermia. These quickly noticeable physical mean high mortality rates for penguins involved
directly in the spill. Long term effects are less noticeable but often of higher consequences. Fowler, et al discovered high corticosterone
concentrations in female Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) which led to suppressed immune and reproductive systems.
Presence of the hormone was also noted in birds which were only handled and washed by the humans. These findings note rehabilitation
efforts which are high stress could severely impact future survival of Magellanic Penguins previously involved in a spill.
Kahn, C. M. "Toxicology - Petroleum Exposure. 2005. The Merck Veterinary Manual. Whitehouse Station, NJ. Print.
Chapter discusses the range of effects frompetroleum exposure in a host of animals.
Clinical findings range from GI upset to nervous system disorders. Diagnosis and
treatments differ depending on severity of the case.
Newman, S., R. Golightly, E. Craig, H. Carter, and C. Kreuder. 1999. The Effects of Petroleum Exposure and Rehabilitation on Post-release Survival,
Behavior, and Blood Health Indices: A Common Murre Case Study. 1-46. Final Report - Oiled Wildlife Care Network, Wildlife Health Center,.
In the Fall of 1999, the mouth of Humboldt Bay in California was covered in nearly 9,000 liters of petroleum prompting many wildlife organizations
to begin rehabilitation of the oiled and injured coastal birds. Complexities and time spans recorded for after rehabilitation monitoring have
severely limited any analysis of these efforts. Researchers aimed to further understand the impacts of these organizations by monitoring
Murre birds during rehabilitation and post-release. 31 Murres were fitted with radio transmitters, mortality sensors, and had biological
measurements taken (including blood samples). 25-31 days after release the birds were recaptured and reassessed for recovery. Through this
effort, the long-term effects of petroleum were seen to be minimal on birds which had undergone rehabilitation procedures. Mean survival
increased significantly for those who had been rescued by wildlife centers as compared to control Murres.
Underhill, L. G., P. A. Bartlett, Baumann, R. J.M. Crawford, B. M. Dyer, A. Gildenhuys, D. C. Nel, T. B. Oatley, M. Thornton, L. Upfold, A. J. Williams, P.
A. Whittington, and A. C. Wolfaardt. 1999. Mortality and Survival of African Penguins Spheniscus Demersus involved in the Apollo Seaoil Spill:
An Evaluation of Rehabilitation Efforts. Ibis 141.1 29-37.
Wiese, F. K., and G. J. Robertson. 2004. Assessing Seabird Mortality From Chronic Oil Discharges At Sea. Ed. Boal. Journal of Wildlife
Management 68.3 627-38.
Major oil spills like the Exxon Valdez are often times what comes to mind when referring
to wildlife exposure to petroleum. More likely is a small spill such as a dump from a
cargo ship to come in contact with avian populations. Researchers have long sought to
understand how populations are affected by chronic exposure but have not been able to
overcome hindrances such as carcass disturbance. A mathematical model known as the
Oiled Bird Mortality Model was constructed to determine overall deaths in relation to
those which were known over a 27 week period during the winter months in
Newfoundland, Canada.
Sources