Introduction to-chemistry

of 61 General Chemistry: Chapter 12
PHILIP DUTTON
UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND
BIOCHEMISTRY
TENTH EDITION
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Principles and Modern Applications
PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE
Intermolecular Forces:
Liquids and Solids 12
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

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Intermolecular Forces:
Liquids and Solids
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.General Chemistry: Chapter 12

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12-5 Intermolecular Forces
♦ Van der Waals Forces
•A collection of weak attractive forces between groups of
atoms or molecules.
♦ Instantaneous and Induced Dipoles
•Displacement of electrons cause polarization giving rise
to an instantaneous dipole. This dipole can affect
neighbouring molecules causing induced dipoles.
♦ Dispersion or London forces.
•Instantaneous dipole – induced dipole attraction.
•Related to polarizability.

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The phenomenon of induction
♦ FIGURE 12-1

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Instantaneous and induced dipoles
♦ FIGIURE 12-2

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Molecular shape and polarizability
♦ FIGURE 12-3

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Dipole-Dipole Interactions
♦ FIGURE 12-4
♦ Dipole-dipole interactions

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12-6 Hydrogen Bonding
♦ FIGURE 12-5
♦ Comparison of boiling points of some hydrides of the elements
of groups 14, 15, 16, and 17

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Hydrogen bonding in gaseous hydrogen fluoride
♦ FIGURE 12-6
Electrostatic potential map of HF

Hydrogen bonding between H2O molecules

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Hydrogen bonding in water
♦ FIGURE 12-7
around a molecule in the solid in the liquid

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An acetic acid dimer
♦ FIGURE 12-9

Ethyl alcohol
(ethanol)|
at 20°C: η = 1.20 cP
Ehylene glycol
(1,2-ethanediol)|
at 20°C: η = 19.9 cP
Glycerol
(1,2,3-propanetriol)|
at 20°C: η = 1490 cP

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Intermolecular and Intramolecular Hydrogen
Bonding
Electrostatic potential
map of salicylic acid
showing intramolecular
hydrogen bonding.
There is no intramolecular
hydrogen bonding in
para-hydroxybenzoic acid
Hydrogen bonding between
guanine (left) and cytosine (right) in
DNA

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12-2 Some Properties of Liquids
Cohesive Forces
Intermolecular forces between like
molecules.
Adhesive Forces
Intermolecular forces between unlike
molecules.
Surface Tension γ
Energy or work required to increase
the surface area of a liquid.
Viscosity η
A liquids resistance to flow.
FIGURE 12-10
An effect of surface tension
illustrated

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Surface Tension
♦ FIGURE 12-11
♦ Intermolecular forces in a liquid

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Meniscus formation
♦ FIGURE 12-13
Figure 12-14
Capillary Action
Figure 12-12
Wetting of a surface

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Viscosity
♦ FIGURE 12-15
♦ Measuring viscosity
A liquid’s resistance to flow.
The stronger the intermolecular
forces of attraction, the greater the
viscosity.
When a liquid flows, one portion of
the liquid moves with respect to
neighboring portions.
Cohesive forces within the liquid
create an internal friction, which
reduces the rate of flow.

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increased temperature—more molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to
overcome intermolecular forces of attraction in the liquid.
increased surface area of the liquid—a greater proportion of the liquid
molecules are at the surface.
decreased strength of intermolecular forces—the kinetic energy needed
to overcome intermolecular forces of attraction is less, and more
molecules have enough energy to escape.
Enthalpy of Vaporization
ΔHvap = Hvapor – Hliquid = - ΔHcondensation

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Vapor Pressure of Liquids
♦ FIGURE 12-16
♦ Establishing liquid-vapor equilibrium
liquid vapor
vaporization
condensation

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Vapor pressure illustrated
♦ FIGURE 12-17
Mercury
manometer
Vapor
pressure
of liquid
Pvap
independent
of Vliq
Pvap
independent
of Vgas
Pvap
dependent on
T

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Vapor pressure curves of several liquids
♦ FIGURE 12-18

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An Equation for Expressing Vapor
Pressure Data
♦ FIGURE 12-20
♦ Vapor pressure data plotted as lnP versus 1/T
ln P = -A ( ) + B
1
T
A =
ΔHvap
R
ln = - ( - )
P2
P1
1
T2
1
T1
ΔHvap
R

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Boiling and Boiling Point
♦ FIGURE 12-21
♦ Boiling water in a paper cup
Liquid boils at low
pressure
FIGURE12-21
Boiling water in a paper cup

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The Critical Point
♦ FIGURE 12-22
♦ Attainment of the critical point for benzene

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12-3 Some Properties of Solids
Figure 12-23
Cooling curve for water
Figure 12-24
Heating curve for water
Melting, Melting Point, and Heat of Fusion
H2O(s) H2O(l) ΔHfus(H2O) = +6.01 kJ/mol

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Sublimation
♦ FIGURE 12-25
♦ Sublimation of iodine
ΔHsub = ΔHfus + ΔHvap
= -ΔHdeposition

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12-4 Phase Diagrams
♦ FIGURE 12-26
♦ Temperature, pressure, and states of matter

♦ FIGURE 12-27
♦ Phase diagram for iodine
Iodine

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Carbon Dioxide
♦ FIGURE 12-28
♦ Phase diagram for carbon dioxide

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Supercritical Fluids
♦ FIGURE 12-29
♦ Critical point and critical isotherm

Decaffeinated
coffee

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Water
♦ FIGURE 12-30
♦ Phase diagram for water

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Phases and Phase Transitions
melting (s) (l)
vaporization (l) (g)
sublimation (s) (g)
freezing (l) (s)
condensation (g) (l)
deposition (g) (s)

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12-7 Network Covalent Solids and
Ionic Solids
♦ FIGURE 12-32
♦ The diamond structure
Figure 12-33
The graphite structure

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Other Allotropes of Carbon
♦ FIGURE 12-34
♦ Fullerenes

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Nanotubes
♦ FIGURE 12-35

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Ionic Solids
♦ FIGURE 12-36
♦ Interionic forces of attraction

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12-8 Crystal Structures
♦ FIGURE 12-37
♦ The cubic lattice

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Unit cells in the cubic crystal system
♦ FIGURE 12-38

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Closest packed structures
♦A closest packed pyramid of cannonballs. Oranges at a fruit stand are often
packed in cubic closest packed pyramids so that they will not slip.

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Closest packed structures
♦ FIGURE 12-39

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A face-centered cubic unit cell for the cubic closest packing of
spheres
♦ FIGURE 12-40

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The hexagonal closest packed (hcp) crystal structure
♦ FIGURE 12-41

Illustrating the coordination number for the hcp and ccp structures

How spheres are shared between or among unit cells

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Apportioning atoms among cubic unit cells
♦ FIGURE 12-42

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X-Ray Diffraction
♦ FIGURE 12-43
♦ Diffraction of X-rays by a crystal

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Determination of crystal structure by X-ray diffraction
♦ FIGURE 12-44

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Ionic Crystal Structures
♦ FIGURE 12-46
♦ Holes in face-centered cubic unit cell
Figure 12-47
Cross section of an octahedral hole

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Some units of greater complexity
♦ FIGURE 12-50

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12-7 Energy Changes in the Formation of Ionic
Crystals
♦ FIGURE 12-51
♦ Enthalpy diagram for the formation of an ionic crystal

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End of Chapter Questions
♦You can think about problems in reverse to
help sort out a strategy.
If I had the
answer, what
would I have
used to get it.
a
b
c Solution
Found

Introduction to-chemistry

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