User guide of structural modeling mudule v2.2.1

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User guide of structural modeling module
Contents
User guide of structural modeling module ................................................................................. i
1 Quick look ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Work flow............................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Main functions........................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Work pattern and principle ..................................................................................... 4
1.5 Module relationships.............................................................................................. 5
2 Data.................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Seismic interpretation data ..................................................................................... 7
2.2 Well data................................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Achievement maps ............................................................................................... 10
2.4 Seismic data volume..............................................................................................11
2.5 Manually edited data .............................................................................................11
3 Create a new model.......................................................................................................... 12
3.1 User interface ....................................................................................................... 12
3.2 Load data.............................................................................................................. 13
3.3 Set the survey area................................................................................................ 14
3.4 Save the model ..................................................................................................... 15
3.5 Create model boundary ........................................................................................ 15
3.6 Set grid size .......................................................................................................... 17
4 Fault modeling................................................................................................................. 19
4.1 Summary .............................................................................................................. 19
4.2 Generate and edit fault ......................................................................................... 19
4.2.1 Edit the fault inclination............................................................................ 19

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4.2.2 Edit fault segment ..................................................................................... 22
4.2.3 Add the control points............................................................................... 26
4.2.4 Edit the boundaries of faults ..................................................................... 27
4.3 Deal with the truncated faults............................................................................... 29
4.3.1 Define the truncation relationship of faults............................................... 29
4.3.2 Deal with the “X” shaped faults................................................................ 31
4.3.3 Deal with the branch faults ....................................................................... 33
4.4 Quality control of fault modeling......................................................................... 35
5 Horizon modeling ............................................................................................................ 36
5.1 Summary .............................................................................................................. 36
5.2 Generate horizon .................................................................................................. 36
5.3 Deal with the problem of horizon......................................................................... 37
5.3.1 Clean distance of a fault............................................................................ 38
5.3.2 The problem around fault.......................................................................... 39
5.3.3 Horizon abnormal extension..................................................................... 47
5.3.4 The problem of horizon distortion ............................................................ 53
5.3.5 Identify effective horizons ........................................................................ 54
5.4 Generate horizon zone.......................................................................................... 55
5.4.1 Sort horizons............................................................................................. 55
5.4.2 Division methods of horizons ................................................................... 56
5.4.3 Deal with the unconformity horizons........................................................ 57
Appendixes 1: general settings................................................................................................ 60
Create closed polygon ..................................................................................................... 60
Edit local coordinate........................................................................................................ 61
Appendixes 2: videos .............................................................................................................. 63

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1 Quick look
1.1 Introduction
The main function of structural modeling is to build a reasonable geometry structure model
with raw data such as: seismic interpretation data, well data and achievement maps. Based on
the outstanding algorithms and advanced techniques, the modeling process is easy and efficient.
The geologic relationships between fault and fault, horizon and horizon, as well as fault and
horizon have been fully considered, which contribute to building more realistic and reasonable
structural models.
Fig. 1-1 Complex structural model
1.2Work flow
All necessary data should be imported before establishing a structural model, and then build
fault and horizon model, finally generate zones to complete the establishment of the initial
model.
The initial model need to be inspected and adjusted after being generated. Inspect if the model
matches with the original data, is reasonable and is in line with the geological laws. The model

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can also be adjusted with well data and existing achievement maps. A reasonable structural
model will be achieved after detailed inspecting and adjusting.
Build fault model
Build horizon model
Inspect model
Reasonable structural model
Input data
Initial structural model
Adjust model
Create model
Fig. 1-2 Work flow
1.3Main functions
Structure modeling needs to import the raw data which describes the geometric shape of fault
and horizon. The data usually comes from interpretation systems, geo-modeling software or
structural maps.
Fig. 1-3 The data of faults and horizons
Fault modeling is to generate a smooth surface of each fault automatically and makes sure the
distance from the surface to the fault data points is small enough so as to represent the fault

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shape precisely. At the same time, fault boundaries are generated automatically. And then, fault
model can be easily edited by the way of human-computer interaction such as: edit the raw data,
add control points to control the fault generation, edit fault boundary and specify the truncation
relations between faults, etc. After that, the software can update the fault surfaces according to
the requirements.
Fig. 1-4 Build fault model
Horizon modeling is to generate a smooth surface of each horizon automatically based on the
generated fault model and makes sure the distance from the surface to the horizon data points
is small enough so as to represent the horizon shape precisely. The same as editing faults, users
can edit the horizon data by the way of human-computer interaction. The methods include: edit
the raw data, add control points to control the horizon shape and specify the contact relations
between horizons, etc. The software can update the horizon surfaces according to the
requirements.
Fig. 1-5 Build horizon model
After building fault and horizon model, generate zones. That means the main workflow of
structural modeling is fault modeling, horizon modeling and generating zone. Building a
structural model is actual a process of cyclical iteration of the main workflow.

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Fig. 1-6 Generate zones
It needs to be inspected after the initial model has been built. The methods include: compare
the initial model with the original data, create sections to visualize interior structure of the
model and compare the cross-sections of the model with seismic profiles. After inspecting,
adjust and update the model. Moreover, well data is usually used to inspect and adjust structure
model. Seismic data has a relatively high lateral continuity, which is good at building geometric
framework. Well data has a high resolution in vertical direction, which is used for inspecting
and adjusting the geometry model. An accurate structural model can be achieved in the way of
well-seismic combination.
Fig. 1-7 Inspect & adjust model
1.4 Work pattern and principle
A sub-workflow of structural modeling is fault modeling, horizon modeling and zone

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generating according to the workflow chart (Fig. 1-2). After each data editing of fault and
horizon, the sub-workflow will be worked again to get the updated model. Therefore, the
workflow of structural modeling is actually a process of cyclical iteration of sub-workflow
(fault modeling, horizon modeling and zone generating).
The underlying modeling method belongs to data-driven approach. In other words, user do not
need to edit the generated surfaces of faults and horizons, but to edit the relevant data such as
editing the discrete points, adding control points, drawing boundaries, and specifying contact
relationship. The advantage of this method is that user not only get a reasonable structural
model but also a set of suited data. It is very quick to replicate the model by the suited data
without editing.
1.5Module relationships
The modeling data used in structural modeling module are mainly seismic interpretation data
directly imported from outside. The data from seismic interpretation module, well management
module and enormous modeling module can also be received by structural modeling module.
The structural model can be used in the following ways:
 Directly generate vector data and export them to plan and profile modules for
visualization and mapping;
 Upload to the enormous modeling module for unified management;
 Provide structure framework for structural grid, paleo-structure restoration, velocity
modeling, attribute modeling, geo-mechanical modeling, and reservoir modeling
modules.
The relationships between the structural modeling module and other modules are illustrated in
Fig. 1-8.

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Fig. 1-8 Relationships between the structural modeling module and other modules
So far, you have finished the first chapter and known the functions, module relationship and
workflow of structural modeling. According to the advice of introduction, you’d better continue
learning the operational process of structural modeling video (Structural modeling
workflow.mp4)

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2 Data
The basic data is the foundation of all the other work. Building any model, the most important
aspect is to understand data and check data quality. DepthInsight® provides many ways to
check the data, meanwhile, most data support text format and visualization.
Any regular data files in text format can be imported into DepthInsight® and the data files
include:
1) Seismic interpretation data: this kind of data usually come from seismic interpretation system,
mainly refers to the fault segment data and horizon data interpreted by seismic interpreters. This
is the most commonly used data in DepthInsight® structural modeling.
2) Well data: mainly include well head, well path/trajectory, well tops, well breakpoints, well
logs, well perforations, etc.
3) Achievement maps: include vector maps and bitmaps in BMP format, for the bitmaps we
shall vectorize them first and utilize the discrete points after vectorization.
4) Seismic data volume: 2D or 3D seismic data volume in SEGY format can be loaded into
DepthInsight®, then interpreted by structure interpretation module, the interpreted faults and
horizons can be extracted to structural modeling module
5) Manually edited data: we can add some discrete points, control points, boundary points and
other kind of data when necessary, this kind of data belong to manually edited data.
2.1Seismic interpretation data
This kind of data usually comes from seismic interpretation system, mainly refer to the fault
segment data and horizon data interpreted by seismic interpretators. This is the most commonly
used data in DepthInsight® structural modeling.
1) Fault data from seismic interpretation
Seismic interpretation system makes an organic combination of the logging data in depth
domain with seismic data in time domain, and use geology seismic synthesized calibration
technology to interpret the fault data, which is the basic data for fault modeling. The exported

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fault data by seismic interpretation system and other modeling software can be imported into
DepthInsight®.
Table 2-1 Supported fault data types
Data type Format Import Export File
extension
Charisma
Fault segment, ASCII Yes No
3D interpretation lines, ASCII Yes No
Epos Fault segment, ASCII Yes No .dat
Geoframe
Fault segment, ASCII Yes Yes .udf123
Fault segment, ASCII Yes Yes .flt
IESX
Kingdom
Landmark Fault segment, ASCII Yes Yes .udf
Seisworks
CPS-3
(GeoFrame)lines, ASCII Yes No
Lines, ASCII Yes No
Irap classic
Lines, ASCII Yes No
Point, ASCII Yes No
Zmap+
Lines, ASCII Yes No
Point, ASCII Yes No
DepthInsight® Points (DepthInsight®) Yes Yes .dat
Control points (DepthInsight®) Yes Yes .dat
Boundary (DepthInsight®) Yes Yes .dat
Truncation (DepthInsight®) Yes Yes .dat
Config parameters
(DepthInsight®)
Yes Yes .dat
Other ASCII data Points/Contours/Grids, ASCII Yes Yes .dat
2) Horizon data from seismic interpretation
Seismic interpretation system makes an organic combination of the logging data in depth
domain with seismic data in time domain, and use geology seismic synthesized calibration
technology to interpret the horizon data, which is the basic data for horizon modeling. The
exported horizon data by seismic interpretation system and other modeling software can be
imported into DepthInsight®.

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Table 2-2 Supported horizon data types
Data type Format Import Export File extension
Charisma 3D interpretation lines, ASCII Yes No
IESX 3D interpretation lines, ASCII Yes No
Kingdom 3D interpretation lines, ASCII Yes No
Seisworks 3D interpretation lines, ASCII Yes No
CPS-3
(GeoFrame)lines, ASCII Yes No
Lines, ASCII Yes No
Irap classic
Lines, ASCII Yes No
Point, ASCII Yes No
Zmap+
Lines, ASCII Yes No
Point, ASCII Yes No
DepthInsight® Points (DepthInsight®) Yes Yes .dat
Control points (DepthInsight®) Yes Yes .dat
Other ASCII data Points/Contours/Grids, ASCII Yes Yes .dat
2.2Well data
Well data include well head, well path/trajectory, well tops, well breakpoints, well logs and well
perforations. The well tops, well breakpoints and well perforation are attached to well path.
The imported data are stored in data management in DepthInsight®, the user can load data and
manage them in well management. For the specific operation procedure of importing and
loading well data, please refer to the user guide and teaching video of data management
module and well management module.
The following steps are the common method to import and load well data in DepthInsight®.
1) Import well head (Data management)
2) Import well trajectory (Data management)
3) Import well tops (Data management)
4) Import well breakpoints (Data management)
5) Import well log (Data management)
6) Import well perforations (Data management)
7) Create seismic survey (Data management)
8) Set the database information (Well management)
9) Load well path (Well management)

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10) Load well tops (Well management)
11) Load well breakpoints (Well management)
12) Load well logs (Well management)
13) Load well perforations (Well management)
Well breakpoints and well tops are mainly used in adjusting structural model and building
microstructure model in structural modeling. Use well breakpoints to calibrate fault surfaces
and data.
Fig. 2-1 Calibrate fault surface by well breakpoints
Calibrate horizon surfaces by well tops. With the fault and horizon constraints, well tops
generate layer microstructure model by sedimentary patterns of proportional, follow top, follow
base.
Fig. 2-2 Calibrate strata by well tops
2.3Achievement maps
Users can use achievement maps to complete the structural modeling under the circumstance

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of lacking seismic data and well data.
1) Vector maps can export corresponding geological data(X, Y, Z format), and load them into
DepthInsight® for modeling.
2) Maps in BMP format can be loaded into DepthInsight®, and vectorized by human-computer
interaction, and extract these vectorized data to build model.
The vectorization process need to use structural interpretation module. For the specific
operation method, please refer to the User Guide and Teaching Video of Structural
interpretation modeling module.
2.4Seismic data volume
The raw data from seismic acquisition go through the seismic processing, then attain a set of
seismic data volume used for seismic interpretation. The method of using this kind of data is
similar to bitmaps in BMP format. It needs the help of structural interpretation module and
interpret the fault and horizon data from the seismic data volume, then extract these interpreted
data to structural modeling module for subsequent use. For the specific operation procedures,
please refer to the User Guide and Teaching Videos of Structural modeling module.
Note: 2D lines and 3D seismic volume in SEGY format both can be imported into
DepthInsight®, the limiting factor is computer hard disk, not data size. The original seismic
data are not stored into DepthInsight® work area, loading seismic data in structural
interpretation module is just setting a link to the SEGY file. The user need to relocate the SEGY
file in structural interpretation module, if the SEGY file is removed.
2.5Manually edited data
The DepthInsight® supply user adding discrete points, control points, boundary points and
other kind of data when necessary, this kind of data belong to manually edited data.

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3 Create a new model
3.1User interface
Double click the DepthInsight® icon to start the software, or double click
DepthInsight®.exe in its installation path, open the Main interface (Fig. 3-1).
Fig. 3-1 Main interface
Click the Modeling, open the DepthInsight® modeling interface (Fig. 3-2).

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Fig. 3-2 User interface
 Menu bar—click any one of titles on the menu bar, can open the dialog box, pop-up
menu, order and feature list
 Tool bar—commonly-used commands, user also can find corresponding function in
menu bar
 Tree pane—all function nodes are in tree pane
 Display windows—display the model and data
 Information pane—display current project information, processing, progress
 Properties pane—set the size of the data, color, the coordinate of work area
3.2Load data
Load the modeling data mainly including fault data and horizon data interpreted by seismic
interpreters.
DepthInsight® support different data format which come from different seismic interpretation
system or modeling softwares. We should choose the right file type when importing data. The
picture below is the pop-up dialog box of importing fault data (Fig. 3-3). Importing the horizon
data is the same as fault data importing.

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Fig. 3-3 The pop-up dialog box of importing fault data
If the Z-value is mostly positive, we should mark negate Z-values when mostly positive and
select OK. If not , we select OK directly.
3.3Set the survey area
There are two methods to set the survey: 1) Extract the survey automatically. 2) Modify the
coordinate of survey manually
1) According to the imported data, extract the survey automatically. Every time, when
importing the fault data or horizon data, the pop-up dialog box will show automatically (Fig.
3-4) reminding the user to extract the survey or not.
Fig. 3-4 The prompts after import the fault data
2) Modify the coordinate of survey manually
Because the software set up the survey/work area according to the scope of the data range, when
the range of fault data is much larger than the range of the horizon data, the automatically
extracted survey area tend to be quite large, so DepthInsight® provides function of modifying
the coordinate of survey manually in the property pane.

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The setting principle of survey area: when generating the horizon surface, the empty area also
occupy the computer memory, so set the minimum scope as far as possible according to the
data range.
3.4Save the model
1) Create a new model:
Click the File on the menu bar, select save or Ctrl + S. User can also click the save icon
to store the current model. Follow the prompts to enter a name, click save to create a new model.
2) Open an existed model
Open the existed model, user need to open the software first, click the File on the menu, select
open or Ctrl + O. User can also open the existed model by clicking the Open icon.
3.5Create model boundary
Creating model boundary is one necessary part of modeling. There are three methods, you can
choose the proper method according to the actual situation.
1) Use the default boundary which is the border of the whole work area.
2) Draw the boundary manually or import boundary file from outside. Right click on structural
model and select model boundary, then new (Fig. 3-5). Draw a boundary in the way of
creating a closed polygon. Before drawing, activate Projection first, in order to adjust the
view for an exact position.

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Fig. 3-5 Create the model boundary
3) Based on the default boundary or created boundary, we can also add a boundary fault. First,
left click on the boundary fault node (Fig. 3-6 a). And then, mark the enable and set direction
in boundary fault of properties pane (Fig. 3-6 b). Nearby the fault, there is a black cube to
remind you which side of the fault will be cut off (Fig. 3-6 c).
Fig. 3-6 Add a boundary fault
The effect of three kinds of boundary (Fig. 3-7):
Fig. 3-7 The effect of three kinds of boundary
(a) default boundary (b) created boundary (c) the boundary with fault

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In a real project, we usually adopt the method of drawing model boundary in order to make
the model boundary match with the data.
3.6Set grid size
Model grid size includes fault grid size and horizon grid size.
The setting principle of fault grid size: the grid size is suitable to make fault surface describe
fault geometry well. Over-sized grid will make the surface not match with the data. Under-sized
grid can’t help to improve the quality of fault surface, but to increase the computing time (Fig.
3-8).
Fig. 3-8 Fault surface of different grid size
(a) 20m (b) 100m (c) 500m
Note: please do not misunderstand, the black lines on the fault surfaces in the picture above are
fault segments (raw seismic interpreted data), not the grid, we cannot see the grid on the fault.
The setting principle of horizon grid size: there is no strict rules, the grid size of horizon is
decided according to the areas of the model survey, the quality of raw seismic data and the stage
of model application. The user can set a large size grid in case of modeling a large scale model
with low accuracy data. This model is always used in preliminary prospecting stage. Generally,
set a small size grid in case of modeling a small scale model with high accuracy data, when the
work area is in the stage of development.
Assuming the data unit is meter (in fact the data is dimensionless in DepthInsight®), the
reference of setting horizon grid size:
Stage of model application The area of model Grid size of horizon

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Development stage About 20 (km2
) 20-50m
Detailed prospecting stage About 200 (km2
) 50-200m
Preliminary prospecting stage About 2000 (km2
) 200-500m
General survey stage About 10000 (km2
) 800-1500m
Note: the grid size of fault depends on whether fault surface could describe the fault geometry
well or not. It can be different from the horizon grid size but the difference shouldn’t be too
large.

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4 Fault modeling
4.1Summary
Fault data should be imported before fault modeling. It is usually the format of fault segment.
If the fault segments are not separated and renamed in the seismic interpretation system, users
need to separate and rename them first. Then update the fault surfaces with one button operation.
The boundary of faults is created automatically according to the data.
Sometimes the initial fault surfaces are not ideal enough, which needs to be edited manually.
Users can change the fault surfaces by editing data such as: edit segments, edit boundaries and
add control points, etc. And then, assign the major fault to deal with the truncated faults. Finally,
the edited faults will be regenerated to see the effect. We can run this procedure many times
until we get a reasonable and ideal fault model we want.
4.2Generate and edit fault
Most of the fault modeling workload is editing fault. It takes much less time to solve this
problem if using right tools. So, it is essential to master editing fault.
4.2.1 Edit the fault inclination
In general, the data of fault comes from two kinds of software. One is seismic interpretation
software, the data of fault from it cover a whole fault (Fig. 4-1 a). Another is geo-modeling
software, such as Petrel, RMS and so on. The fault data from it are only a part of whole fault in
the aim horizons (Fig. 4-1 b).

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Fig. 4-1 The overall fault data and local fault data
At the beginning of fault modeling, the software will calculate the least squares plane of fault
according to its data. It is the shortest distance of sum of all the vertical distances from every
fault point to the plane.
The inclination of least squares plane is consistent with the fault’s inclination for whole fault
data (Fig. 4-2 a). But the partial fault data in the target horizon appear like a band. Its least
squares plane is not at the inclination of fault but at horizontal plane (Fig. 4-2 b). The fault
inclination need to edit manually.
Fig. 4-2 The least squares plane of the horizontal plane and fault inclination
The method of editing: click faults (Fig. 4-3 a), choose display local coordinate and switch to
manual in Setting of Properties (Fig. 4-3 b). Then, a local coordinate is displayed on the fault.

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Fig. 4-3 Set local coordinate to manual in properties plan
Edit local coordinate or select Set Z-axis to horizontal (Fig. 4-3 c) to make sure the blue axis
is vertical to fault surface (Fig. 4-4 a). The least squares plane is just at the direction of the
surface formed by green and red axis. And then, regenerate the fault and get the correct fault
surface (Fig. 4-4 b).
Fig. 4-4 Edit the coordinate and update fault
Refer to the video: How to edit the inclination of faults.mp4

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4.2.2 Edit fault segment
4.2.2.1 Editing point and segment
It is usually to edit or delete the wrong data of fault when users find some abnormal fault shapes.
Then, update the fault after editing. The detailed operation of editing point and segment is right
click segment and select edit, then click the segment. It will be highlighted.
Fig. 4-5 Start edit fault segments function
Press delete key to delete the segment or click again on the segment to edit the key point on it
(Fig. 4-6 a). The method of editing point is Edit local coordinate. After moving the point to
an ideal position (Fig. 4-6 b), press enter key and click ok in the pop-up dialog box to finish
working (Fig. 4-6 d).

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Fig. 4-6 Edit fault segments
4.2.2.2 Batch editing segment
Editing single point and segment is inefficient. Sometimes, it cannot get the result we need. In
that case, users can copy, cut and paste to get an expected result.
The functions of copy, cut and paste is the same as that in office software except that
DethInsight®
saves temporary data in a clipboard. Users can get data by creating closed
polygon within a certain range.
One thing we need to pay much attention to here is that if the segments are partly inside the
closed polygon, it will not be copied or cut (Fig. 4-7 a). Only the entire segment inside the
closed polygon will be selected. But if you do it like this, press shift, and at the same time draw
a closed polygon, then all the segment data inside the closed polygon will be selected. The
result of cutting or copying all the data in the closed polygon is just like the right-below figure
(Fig. 4-7 b).

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Fig. 4-7 Batch editing segment
4.2.2.3 Separating fault segment
There are two ways to separate fault segment, one is separating automatically. Another is
separating manually. Here we just introduce how to separate fault segment manually.
Right click segment, select separate manually, and then circle the segments which needed to
be separated.
The operation of separating segments and cutting segments are same. The only difference is
that the data separated is saved directly in a new fault which is named after fault_1 (the
separated fault is named after fault).
4.2.2.4 Merging fault segment
If we are sure that two or more fault data belong to one fault, we can merge them together and
combine them into one.
Note: all the faults displayed in the window (whose node are being checked) will be merged
into one fault. Make sure the faults we do not want to merge are not displayed.
Illustration: merge LP_f100 and fault_1 together.
(1) Only display the two faults in the view window (Fig. 4-8).

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Fig. 4-8 Display the faults which need to be merged
(2) Right click segments of either of the two faults and select merge (the other one’s segments
will be merged into the selected one). In this example, we merge them on LP_f100 (Fig. 4-9 a).
(3) The software prompts whether you ensure or not (Fig. 4-9 b).
Fig. 4-9 Start the merge function
(4) The software will retain the fault (LP_f100) and the fault to be merged (Fault_1) will be
deleted. All segment data of Fault_1 will be included in fault LP_f100. Edit the boundary of
LP_f100 and regenerate fault (Fig. 4-10).

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Fig. 4-10 The merged fault
Refer to the video: How to copy and cut the fault segments.mp4
4.2.3 Add the control points
Control point is designed to control the extension of the fault surface, especially areas lack of
data.
Illustration: due to a lack of data, the edge of the LP_f13 descends too low and needs a control
point to move up the surface.
Operation:
1) Right click Control points and select Edit (Fig. 4-11 a),
2) Move mouse to the descending location and double left click to add control point, then show
the local coordinate (Fig. 4-11 b),
3) Edit local coordinate to move the control point (Fig. 4-11 c),
4) Press Enter key and update fault (Fig. 4-11 d).

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Fig. 4-11 Edit the control point to adjust the fault surface
Refer to the video: How to add the control points.mp4
4.2.4 Edit the boundaries of faults
There are three calculation methods for fault boundaries: Regular border, sculpted border
and convex hull border. The results of them are displayed as follows (Fig. 4-12).
Fig. 4-12 Three kinds of faults boundaries
The default method is sculpted border. Select others according to realistic demand. Not only

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can select the methods on faults for all faults but also each fault’s method on its own node.
Fig. 4-13 Set the boundaries of faults all together
If the boundary is not as good as the user expected, the user can also edit the key points on the
boundary of a fault.
(1) Right click on boundary and select edit.
Fig. 4-14 Edit the boundaries of faults
(2) Left click on the boundary to add a key point, then move the point to a proper position (Fig.
4-15 a). If there are many key points on the boundary, users can select them by circling them,
then press delete. (Fig. 4-15 b), and then add some key points to control the boundary shape.
Fig. 4-15 Edit the key points of the fault boundary

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Note: when editing the points of boundary, it’s better to set the z-direction scale factor as 1(Fig.
4-16). Otherwise, we cannot move the points easily.
Fig. 4-16 Set the view zoom factor
(3) After editing, regenerate fault. The software will regenerate the edited faults and others
related with them.
Refer to the video: How to edit the boundaries of faults.mp4
4.3Deal with the truncated faults
4.3.1 Define the truncation relationship of faults
When fault truncates with others, it needs defining the truncation relationship to cut off the
ineffective part. DethInsight®
provides both automatic judgment and definition by human-
computer interaction. Users only need to define the major faults’ truncation relationship by
hand, the small ones’ will be recognized automatically by DethInsight®
. If some automatic
judgments are wrong, then edit by hand.
Illustration: F2, F3 truncate with F1, as seen in the figure below. DethInsight®
automatically
determines the truncation relationships of the three faults: both F2 and F3 truncate with F1 and
form “Y” type faults. In this case, the small parts of the F2, F3, as seen the red circle in Fig.
are cut off automatically. If need, users should separate F2, F3 into two faults respectively.

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Fig. 4-17 Fault section
Illustration 1: as seen in the figures below, the green fault is cut by the blue one, so the blue
fault is the major fault of the green one. The operation of truncation relationship definition is
introduced in the structural modeling. Here are notes: when dealing with the truncation, the
secondary fault should be cut off completely, otherwise it leads to horizon abnormities.
Fig. 4-18 The truncation relationship of faults
Illustration 2: as seen in the figures below, Fault_2 is cut by Fault_1, but not completely (Fig.
4-19 a). When generating the surface, Horizon_1 in the red circle will generate the ineffective
displacement, but Horizon_2 is not affected due to the longer distance (Fig. 4-19 b). If edit the
Fault_2 manually to cut it off completely, this problem can be avoided just like section B (Fig.
4-19 c).

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Fig. 4-19 Fault cut off incompletely lead to horizon abnormities
Refer to the video: How to deal with the intersected faults.mp4
4.3.2 Deal with the “X” shaped faults
When two or more faults truncate in "X" shape, we call them X type faults. DepthInsight®
makes automatic judgment and processes the truncated faults. But if sometimes the default
judgment goes wrong, it is essential for users to edit manually.
Illustration: as seen in the figure below (Fig. 4-20), the fault LP_F6 truncates with LP_f1,
forming X type faults.

32
Fig. 4-20 “X” shaped faults
But part of the X type faults does not generate effective fault displacement in the horizon as
seen in the red circle (Fig. 4-21). This is because DepthInsight® recognizes the couple faults
as “Y” type. When DepthInsight® generates the horizon, the part of the LP_f1 is regarded as
being cut off by LP_f6.
Fig. 4-21 The X type faults does not generate effective fault displacement in the horizon
In this case, taking the LP_F6 as border, separate the fault LP_f1 manually into two faults
(LP_f1 and FP_f1_1), edit the boundary and assign the LP_F6 as their major fault respectively
(Fig. 4-22).

33
Fig. 4-22 Separating and define the truncation relationship of faults
Update fault, the original fault is replaced by two faults (Fig. 4-23). Regenerate the horizon, the
separated fault LP_f1_1 forms an effective displacement in the horizon.
Fig. 4-23 The X type faults generate effective fault displacement in the horizon
Refer to the video: How to deal with the X shaped faults.mp4
4.3.3 Deal with the branch faults
Branch faults develop where tectonic activities are frequent, suffering from extrusion and
stretching. An early developed fault suffers from late tectonic developments, so the fault surface
will rupture again and become more complex, as seen in the figure below (Fig. 4-24).

34
Fig. 4-24 The data of branch faults
The branch fault is one fault in nature. Because of the complex truncation with others, it is
difficult to define the relationship if treated as one fault. DepthInsight® provides Fault manage
group to separate the branch fault into several ones and define the truncation relationship
respectively.
Illustration: check the truncation relationship of the branch fault and according to the
truncation it can be divided into 5 sub-fault. 1 is cut by fault_1, 2 is cut by fault_2, 4 is cut by
fault_1 and fault_2, 5 is cut by fault_2 and fault_3, 3 is truncated with none.
Fig. 4-25 The truncation relationship of branch faults
Right click Fault management and select Add group (Fig. 4-26 a), rename and Active it (Fig.
4-26 b), add the sub-faults into the group (Fig. 4-26 c).
Fig. 4-26 Create branch fault group

35
Add every sub-fault to the current group (Fig. 4-27), when finished, the fault group contain all
sub-faults node (Fig. 4-27 b).
Fig. 4-27 Add fault to group
The default of the sub-faults in one group is set by DethInsight®
as one branch fault (Fig. 4-28
a), then DethInsight®
updates faults and generates the horizon. The generated branch fault
model can simulate a complex structure (Fig. 4-28 b).
Fig. 4-28 The shape of branch faults
Refer to the video: How to deal with the branch faults.mp4
4.4Quality control of fault modeling
The quality of fault modeling, on one hand, depends on whether their geometry shape,
truncation relationship matches geologists’ understanding of the faults, on the other hand, we
must inspect whether there are abnormities on generated horizons under the control of related
faults. In many cases, abnormities on the horizon surface result from related faults, this will be
introduced in detail in the next chapter.

36
5 Horizon modeling
5.1 Summary
The horizon data should be imported before modeling and usually the format is discrete point.
Horizons are generated based on the fault model. The boundary of horizon is the same as the
model boundary. The initial horizon surfaces are generally not reasonable which are caused by
abnormal horizon data or related fault model.
Users should master the methods to deal with these horizon problems (The methods will be
introduced in the following parts). After that, sort the horizons to check whether it is in line
with sedimentary sequence, the horizon zone cannot be correctly made with a wrong horizon
sequence. If there are some unconformity horizons, users can assign the major horizons to deal
with the truncated horizons. Finally, regenerate the horizons and make zones.
5.2 Generate horizon
There are four horizon generation algorithms: Minimum curvature, Salt dome generation,
Inverse distance weighting and Kriging. Each method has its own feature and applicable
condition, it’s important to make a reasonable choice according to the actual situation.
Minimum curvature: the default generation method, has the fastest generation speed,
generates the smoothest surface, the generation effect is ideal in most cases. It may result severe
distortion when using low quality data. Changing algorithm to inverse distance weighting is
necessary when this happens.
Salt dome generation: generate complex unconformity horizons (such as salt dome and
volcanic cone).
It should be noted that, salt dome generation algorithm in structural modeling module is very
different from intrusion modeling module which is specialized in building complex intrusive
bodies. This algorithm applies to situations where the amount of the intrusive bodies is quite

37
limited and compared to the whole model, the scope and volume is very large, just like the
volcano model (Fig. 5-1 a)
By contrary, the intrusion modeling module is specialized in building very complex intrusive
bodies and has no limitation on the amount, the scope and volume of the intrusions just like
right below picture (Fig. 5-1 b). In intrusion modeling module, each intrusive body will be
generated in a local coordinate system, usually confined within a small volume. The sub model
will be inserted and merged into the structure framework automatically.
Fig. 5-1 The volcano model and intrusion model
Inverse distance weighting: the simplest way to interpolate by using adjacent points, the
calculating speed is lower, but it doesn’t have a strict need for data quality and applies to
situations where the data quality is not very well.
Kriging: the most accurate interpolation results by solving Kriging equation, too much
calculation result in very slow interpolation speed, rarely used in practical application.
According to the real project experience, the default generation algorithm-Minimum curvature
has an ideal effect and is most widely used.
5.3 Deal with the problem of horizon
In general, the generation of the horizon is not ideal. It depends on the two aspects: the data and
the quality of faults. Sometimes, there are some local problems of horizon surface generated
with discrete point data, which need to be checked and edited by man-computer interaction.
This section will illustrate some common problems in the generated horizon and introduce each
edit method respectively.

38
5.3.1 Clean distance of a fault
In DepthInsight®, there is a very important parameter for users to understand---clean distance.
It has another name, error range of points to fault.
In many cases, seismic interpretation data are not so accurate and there are some points which
belongs to one side of a fault extend into the other side (Fig. 5-2 a). If we generate horizon
directly, the horizon surface will be like that in picture (Fig. 5-2 b).
In order to solve this problem, we can set a clean distance value for F1, then discrete points
within the clean distance of F1 will be regarded as error points and will not be used when
generation H1(Fig. 5-2 c). DepthInsight® will use the outside points to extend to the surface.
But clean distance cannot be too large (Fig. 5-2 d), the discrete points between F1 and F2 are
regarded as error points, so there are no points left to control this patch generating between the
two faults.
Fig. 5‐2 The principle of clean distance
Note: clean distance can only work on the discrete points, control points are not affected by it.
We will introduce two cases caused by clean distance later.
In Chapter 5.3.2.1 Abnormities in fault displacement, the problem was because the clean
distance is too small just like in (Fig. 5-2 a b) in the above picture.
In Chapter 5.3.2.2 Unmatched phenomenon between horizon surface and data, the

39
problem was because the clean distance is too large and there are almost no points to control
this area.
5.3.2 The problem around fault
5.3.2.1 Abnormities in fault displacement
Illustration: as seen in the red circle in the figures below (Fig. 5-3), due to the unreasonable
discrete points, there is an obviously abnormity around the fault displacement in the horizon
surface after generating.
Reason analysis: see Chapter 5.3.1 clean distance of a fault.
In view of this problem, there are two methods to tackle:
Fig. 5‐3 The abnormity of horizon cause by unreasonable discrete points
1) Delete unreasonable discrete points
Operation: Right click the Point node and select Cut (Fig. 5-4 a), then Create closed polygon
to select the unreasonable discrete points, shown as the red circle (Fig. 5-4 b), the unreasonable
discrete points will save at point clipboard temporarily after cut (Fig. 5-4 c). Regenerate the
horizon, if the problem still exist, it shows that the problem is nothing to do with the cut pints
or cut solution, user need to paste the points.

40
Fig. 5‐4 Cut unreasonable discrete points
2) Set the Clean distance of the fault
Operation: Right click T1 and select Pickup fault (Fig. 5-5 a), then move the mouse to the
fault displacement. When the selected fault is highlighted, left click this fault (Fig. 5-5 b). In
the right side, properties pane, set the Clean distance as 50 (Fig. 5-5 c), then regenerate the
horizon.
Fig. 5‐5 Pickup fault and set fault clean distance
Note: clean distance namely error range of points to fault, the default value in DepthInsight®
is 100.
Use the above two methods to regenerate the horizon (Fig. 5-6).

41
Fig. 5-6 The horizon surface after handling unreasonable discrete points
Refer to the video: How to deal with abnormities in fault displacement.mp4
5.3.2.2 Unmatched phenomenon between horizon and data
Illustration: Occasionally the generated horizon and stratum discrete points does not match
(Fig. 5-7), if this phenomenon happens near the fault, then it is probably because the clean
distance value is too large.
Reason analysis: see Chapter 5.3.1 clean distance of a fault.
There are three methods to solve this problem:
Fig. 5-7 Horizon and date not match
1) Set the clean distance of the related fault smaller. So the discrete points will move out of the
clean distance to control the surface generating.
2) Set the unmatched discrete points as control points. This is because clean distance can
only affect the discrete points and control points are not affected by clean distance.
Operation: Right click Points and select Cut (Fig. 5-8 a), then Create closed polygon to select

42
part of the unmatched discrete points and double right click to end (Fig. 5-8 b); Right click
Control points and select Paste (Fig. 5-8 c), regenerate the horizon (Fig. 5-8 d).
Fig. 5-8 Set the unmatched discrete points as control points
3) Add a control point. This method is similar to the second way.
Operation: Right click Control points and select New, then right click the new Control point
and select Edit (Fig. 5-9 a), move mouse to the unmatched horizon and double left click to add
control point here, press shift and drag the blue axis to the unmatched discrete points (Fig. 5-9
b). Regenerate the horizon (Fig. 5-9 c).

43
Fig. 5-9 Add control point by human interaction
Refer to the video: How to improve unmatched phenomenon between horizon and data.mp4
5.3.2.3 The abnormity at the fault boundary
There are mainly two types of horizon abnormities caused by the fault boundary problems. The
first is lateral fault boundary not extending out of the work area.
As shown in the red circle in the figure below (Fig. 5-10), due to the impact of F1 boundary, it
is not an effective fault displacement on the horizon T2 at the boundary of work area. The
method of tackling this problem is very simple -- extend the fault boundary out of the work
area.

44
Fig. 5-10 No effective fault displacement on the horizon
Operation: Right click T2 and select Pickup fault (Fig. 5-11 a), then move the mouse to the
fault displacement. When the selected fault shows highlight, choose fault F1 (Fig. 5-11 b),
select Edit of Boundary (Fig. 5-11 c). Left click selects the fault boundary points and move to
extend the boundary out of the model area (Fig. 5-11 d), then regenerate the fault and horizon
(Fig. 5-12).
Fig. 5-11 Pickup fault and edit the boundary of fault

45
Fig. 5-12 The displacement on the horizon after the boundary of fault extend the work area
The second type horizon abnormities caused by fault boundary problems is that the vertical
boundary cannot limit the extension of the horizon.
Introduction: faults are supposed to separate stratum data and make the generated horizon
more reasonable. The upper boundary of the fault must be high enough to limit the extension
of the left horizon; likewise, the down boundary should be low enough to limit the extension
of the right horizon (Fig. 5-13).
Fig. 5-13 The section of faults and strata
Illustration: If not, the left horizon would extend over the upper boundary leading to an
abnormity near the fault when generating the horizon, as seen in the red circle in the figure
below (Fig. 5-14). It is the same case with the right horizon.

46
Fig. 5-14 The narrow scope of fault upper boundary leading to an abnormity near the horizon
Operation: Right click T2 and select Pickup fault, then move the mouse to the fault
displacement. When the selected fault shows highlight, choose fault FG8 and select Edit of
Boundary (Fig. 5-15 a). Left click selects the fault boundary points and move up (Fig. 5-15 b),
regenerate the fault and horizon (Fig. 5-15 c).
Fig. 5-15 Edit the upper boundary of fault and update fault surface

47
Refer to the video: How to deal with the abnormity at the fault boundary.mp4
5.3.3 Horizon abnormal extension
5.3.3.1 Horizon abnormal extension along the fault
As for the common horizon abnormities, to delete unreasonable points or add control point is
an effective way to edit the generated horizon. But for some special horizon problems, such as
horizon extension along the fault without stratum date, it requires adding control points with
offset to make the surface more reasonable.
Introduction: affected by Fault_1, H1 generates along the fault direction, but this is not a
reasonable geologic formation. The ideal extension of Horiozon_1 is as seen as the yellow
dotted line (Fig. 5-6).
Fig. 5-6 The abnormal extension of horizon along the fault diagram
If add a control point on hanging side of the fault, it cannot affect the extension of heading side
(DepthInsight® default the control point only can affect the horizon which belongs to the same
side of faults); likewise, if add a control point A (Fig. 5-7), only the heading side is affected.

48
Fig. 5-7 Add ordinary control point diagram
In this case, Add a control point B and set a downward offset to make the control range like A,
it affects the extension of hanging side and is cut by the fault (Fig. 5-8). The offset value
depends on the distance between B and A, which is estimated by users.
Fig. 5-8 Add the control point with offset diagram
Illustration: as seen in Fig. 5-9, N2d is divided into two sections by WF_1. Affected by the
fault, the heading side generates a patch of broken layer along the fault surface.
Fig. 5-9 The abnormal extension of horizon along the fault

49
The solution to this problem? Add the control point with offset to control the extension of
heading side. Right click Control points of N2d and select New; right click the new Control
point and select Edit, move mouse to the broken layer and double left click to add control point
(Fig. 5-10).
Fig. 5-10 Add the control point with offset
Then set the offset as 500(according to the distance estimated by users), double right click to
end. Regenerate the horizon (Fig. 5-11).
Fig. 5-11 Fix the abnormal extension of horizon along the fault
Refer to the video: How to deal with horizon abnormal extension along the fault.mp4
5.3.3.2 The floating surface problem
The floating surface is related to faults for mainly two reasons. First, abnormal fault surface
leads to the floating surface. Second, DepthInsight® may judge whether it needs to add horizon
in some separated space and generate the extension along the horizon automatically. But
sometimes the judgment is not appropriate, which leads to floating.
Introduction: the model is divided into several independent or semi-independent spaces. If any

50
points exists in any separated space, it will generate horizon; even if there is no point in some
small space, DepthInsight® will presume there should be a horizon and in most cases such
presumption is reasonable (Fig. 5-12).
Fig. 5-12 Generate horizons diagram
If need to move up the horizon in the X faults to the blue height (Fig. 5-13), it is effective to
add a control point with positive offset.
Fig. 5-13 The control point with offset influence generating horizon surface diagram
If need to eliminate the generated horizon in the X faults, Add a control point with negative
offset which intends to move the horizon down to the dotted blue line, but DepthInsight® will
not generate the horizon in another space to which the horizon does not belong, therefore, the
red horizon between X faults disappears(Fig. 5-14).
Fig. 5-14 The control point with offset fix problem
Illustration: as seen in the figure below, there are two floating locations (Surface 1 and
Surface2) in H7 caused by the X faults.

51
Fig. 5-15 Two floating locations in H7
Due to lack of original data in these two floating locations, by analysis we can conclude that
the floating formation is not consistent with the structural characteristics.
Fig. 5-16 The floating locations cause by faults
Check the Surface1 (Fig. 5-17 a), we can conclude it is caused by the abnormal fault surface.
So edit abnormal segments and regenerate horizon, the floating surface disappears (Fig. 5-17
b).
Fig. 5-17 Eliminate the floating locations by modify fault shape

52
Check Surface 2, this floating surface is caused by extension in the X faults.
Fig. 5-18 The floating location in surface 2
Add a control point in the floating location, and set the offset as -60, then regenerate the surface
(Fig. 5-19).
Fig. 5-19 Add offset control point in floating location
This location haven’t take part in genarate horizons surface because of space, so this method
can resolve this problem (Fig. 5-20).

53
Fig. 5-20 The floating locations has eliminated
Refer to the video: How to deal with the floating surface problem.mp4
5.3.4 The problem of horizon distortion
The severe distortion is often caused by lack of stratum data. DepthInsight® will extend the
horizon according to other data if lack of points, sometime leading to severe surface distortion.
As seen in the figures below, there may exist a fault in the red circle but without any seismic
interpretation, thereby there is an obvious fall in stratum data. If generate the horizon, the
surface will extend to cover these abnormal points and lead to severe distortion.
Fig. 5-21 The problem of horizon distortion cause by data missing
Operation:
(1) Check whether the truncation relationship of the faults near the distortion is defined,
confirm this is not caused by fault abnormities;
(2) Switch the algorithm of horizon generating from minimum curvature to reverse
distance weighting. In general, the horizon surface will be refine after regenerating.
(3) If the method is not success, cut off the abnormal points and regenerate the surface. If
the distortion disappears, it is caused by the selected abnormal points; if not, repeat
cutting off until eliminating the distortion;
(4) Found the problem points range and set the discrete points as control point and
regenerate the horizon.
In this case, the problem is caused by the points which are sparse in the red polygon.
Switch the algorithm of horizon generating from minimum curvature to reverse
distance weighting.

54
Fig. 5-22 Switch the algorithms of horizon generating
The horizon problem is solved after regenerating.
Fig. 5-23 The horizon problem is solved
Refer to the video: How to deal with the problem of distorted horizons.mp4
5.3.5 Identify effective horizons
DepthInsight® can identify the effective truncated horizons for the fault. If the horizon is
truncated by the fault, there will be an effective fault displacement (Fig. 5-24 a); if not, there
will be a yellow line showing the location of the fault (Fig. 5-24 b).
Fig. 5-24 The before and after picture of identify effective horizons
Operation:
1) Automatic identification: Right click Faults and select Identify effective horizons (Fig.
5-25 a), the identification results in Property pane (Fig. 5-25 b).

55
Fig. 5-25 Automatic identify effective horizons
2) Manual selection: after the automatic identification, choose the effective truncated horizons
in Property pane (Fig. 5-26).
Fig. 5-26 Identify effective horizons through human-interactive operation
Refer to the video: How to identify effective horizons.mp4
5.4Generate horizon zone
5.4.1 Sort horizons
Horizon sorting is a necessary operation before generating horizon zone; it aims to sort horizon
nodes according to the actual sedimentary sequence, the old formation at the bottom, the new
formation at the top, which conform to the sedimentary rules. If horizon nodes sequence is not

56
right, horizon zones won't be generated successfully.
There are three methods of horizon sorting: Z-value, Name, Well tops. As shown in the figure
below:
Fig. 5-27 sort the horizons
 According to the rules of sorting by Z value, all the discrete points' Z values at each
layer are averaged, then compare the average of each layer, the smaller the average is,
the earlier the horizon sediments；
 The rules of sorting by well tops is similar to sorting by Z value. Sorting by well tops
is based on hierarchical order of wells, which is applicable to small layer model.
 Sorting by name is based on initial of each layer's name.
Note: sorting by Z - value is not always correct because unconformity horizons exist.
Sometimes it is not the actual depositional sequence after sorting automatically, we need to use
the functions of move up and move down on the horizon node by manual operation or select
the objective horizon and move it to the correct position.
5.4.2 Division methods of horizons
The significance of setting different division methods of horizons is to make the interior sub-
layers in line with the real formation sedimentary characteristics. There are three types:
proportional, follow top, follow base.

57
Fig. 5-28 The pattern of sedimentary
 Proportional is the default division method which is suitable for the conformity
contact horizons or parallel unconformity contact horizons (Fig. 5-29 a);
 Follow top and Follow base are suitable for the horizons which are angle unconformity
contact, Follow top is used for the horizons which are overlap unconformity contact
(Fig. 5-29 b);
 Follow base is used for the horizons which are wedge out unconformity contact (Fig.
5-29 c).
Fig. 5-29 The tectonic sketch of horizon
5.4.3 Deal with the unconformity horizons
Since there are often unconformity contacts in horizons, it is essential for users to process the
intersection of the horizons based on geologic analysis. DepthInsight® provides human-
computer interaction to assign the major horizon for the secondary horizon, then the girds of
secondary horizons will be cut off by the major one so as to process the intersection of the
horizons. Therefore, the proper definition of the intersected relationship is vital to divide the
space and cut off the grids.
Introduction: as seen in the figure below, there are three horizons in this model, H2 is pitched
out by H1 and H1 is the major horizon of H2.

58
Fig. 5-30 The horizons and zones
DepthInsight® default major horizon is prior to the secondary one to divide the space. At first,
H1 divides the whole work area into two sections, a and other b1, b2, c, and d. Because the H2
is the secondary horizon of H1, the next division is based on H3, which separates the d and c,
b1, b2 into two sections. Finally the H2 divides the remaining space into c, b1 and b2.
According to the divisions above, when make zones, space generates the surface zone, space
b1 and b2 belong to H1 zones, space c and d belongs to H2 and H3 zones respectively.
Operation: H1 is the major horizon of H2, then right click the Major horizons of H2(Fig.
5-31 a), move mouse to H1 surface and double left click(Fig. 5-31 b), the H1 is added below
the Major horizons(Fig. 5-31 c). Right click Horizons and choose Intersection processing,
the unconformity section is cut off (Fig. 5-31 d), then Make zones.

59
Fig. 5-31 Assign major horizons
Notes: the unconformity locations always generate unreasonable horizons due to lack of data
(Fig. 5-32 a). Thereby, it is essential for users to edit the horizon before processing the
intersection, such as adding control point or discrete points to edit the extension. Then process
the intersection as the methods mentioned above (Fig. 5-32 b).
Fig. 5-32 Add the control point to change the strata
Refer to the video: How to deal with unconformity horizons.mp4

60
Appendixes 1: general settings
Create closed polygon
Creating closed polygon will be used in many cases. Such as: drawing model boundary, dealing
with points, dealing with fault segments, etc. User should master it first. Take cutting the
horizon points as example in the follow words.
(1) Right click on the Point and select Cut, as shown Fig. 0-1.
Fig. 0-1 Cut points
(2) Left click to start drawing a closed polygon in the view window. After drawing the last key
point, double right click to finish. The software will make a closed polygon automatically (Fig.
0-2 a).
(3) After finish drawing the polygon, the data in the polygon will display different color to
remind the user (Fig. 0-2 b).

61
Fig. 0-2 Create closed polygon
Edit local coordinate
Editing local coordinate will be used in many cases, such as: editing fault inclination, editing
point or points, etc. User should master it.
Take editing horizon control point as example in the follow words.
First, right click Control point 1 and select Edit (Fig. 0-3 a), double left click the surface, you
will see a control point and its local coordinate (Fig. 0-3 b).
Fig. 0-3 Edit horizon control points
Left click one of the axis and move mouse to rotate the coordinate (Fig. 0-4 a). Left click and
move mouse with keeping shift key pressed down to achieve coordinate translation in one of
the axis directions (Fig. 0-4 b).

62
Fig. 0-4 Edit local coordinate
When editing point, there is a projection point on the surface (Fig. 0-5 a).Press enter key to
finish editing and the point will remain at the current position (Fig. 0-5 b). Press space key to
finish editing and the point will be shifted to the projection point (Fig. 0-5 c).
Fig. 0-5 Determine the location of the control point

63
Appendixes 2: videos
1. Structural modeling workflow.mp4
2. How to add the control points.mp4
3. How to copy and cut the fault segments.mp4
4. How to deal with the branch faults.mp4
5. How to deal with the intersected faults.mp4
6. How to deal with the X shaped faults.mp4
7. How to edit the boundaries of faults.mp4
8. How to edit the inclination of faults.mp4
9. How to deal with abnormities in fault displacement.mp4
10. How to deal with horizon abnormal extension along the fault.mp4
11. How to deal with the abnormity at the fault boundary.mp4
12. How to deal with the floating surface problem.mp4
13. How to deal with the problem of distorted horizons.mp4
14. How to deal with unconformity horizons.mp4
15. How to identify effective horizons.mp4
16. How to improve unmatched phenomenon between horizon and data.mp4

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