since1970s, there has been a sharp rise in Global Resource Information System (gris) facilitated by satellites/satellite-aided geodetic, cartographic and geostatistical methods. This enormous information base needs an entirely new methods of analysis and interpretation. Hence, emerged an entirely new branch of learning and methodology, “geoinformatics”.

1. Role of Remote Sensing(RS) and Geographical Information System
(GIS) in Geography
Prof Ashis Sarkar, M.Sc, W.B.S.E.S.
formerly, Department of Geography: Presidency College/
University, Chandernagore College
Managing Editor and Publisher: Indian Journal of Spatial Science
(www.indiansss.org)
1-day Special Lecture
Organized by
The Department of Geography
Kalyani Mahavidyalaya
09-03-2018

2. The term “Geography” is used to —
…."describe or picture or write about the Earth": Eratosthenes (276–194 BC).
But, mere names of places...are not geography... It has higher aims than this: it seeks
—
(1) to classify phenomena,
(2) to compare,
(3) to generalize,
(4) to ascend from effects to causes, and in doing so,
(5) to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon
man.
This is simply 'a description of the world‘ : Hence, Geography is a Science—
- a thing not of mere names but
- of argument and reason,
- of cause and effect: William Hughes (1863)

3. Geography is important in Real World —
1. Aristotle (384–322 BC): to avoid the errors of other people and countries
and to profit from their good ideas.
2. Aurelius (121–180): in order to keep our principles of living with nature
alive ….compare them to those in other countries.
3. Montaigne (1533–1592): it teaches us to put things in perspective amid
earthquakes, volcanism, floods and wars.
4. Cervantes (1547–1616): it’s the job of the geographers to be exact,
truthful and unbiased about time, storehouse of deeds, witness for the
past, examples and counsel for the present and warning for the future.
5. Descartes (1596–1650): in order to judge our own customs and actions
better by examining those of others living in different situations ……to
travel to another place and time by listening to people describing their
time and country.
6. Pascal (1623–1662): in order to advance man’s knowledge…. man makes
continual progress through trial-and-error learning….to learn the universal
principles of human nature by seeing man in different kinds of situations
and circumstances…

4. Hume (1711–1776): mankind are so much the same, in all times and places…
the use of geography is to understand, live and exist in our current world …..
we must trade, understand and exist with others.
Adam Smith (1723–1790): to insure order in society by having an informed
and educated people and in order to remove prejudices and increase
understanding.
Thus, Geography takes us to different land and people with different cultures.
It’s fun and fascinating. It has 5 fundamental themes —
Location: position on the earth’s surface
Place: physical and human characteristics
Relationships within places: man – environment
Movement: human interaction on the earth
Regions: how they form and change
Earth – in relation to – Man: Physical Geography
Man – in relation to – Earth: Human Geography
The Choice is Yours!!

5. Physical Geography
Earth Science: Geotectonics, Geomorphology,
Atmospheric Science: Climatology,
Life Science: Soil Geography, Plant Geography, Environmental
Geography
Hypotheses, Theories and Universal Laws of Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics
Human Geography
Economics: Economic Geography (Activity, Spatial Pattern, Spatial Structure and
Organization, Trade and Commerce, Transport, etc)
Philosophy: Evolution of Thoughts (Schools)
Sociology: Social / Cultural Geography including Health, Recreation, Education
Demography: Population Geography
Hypotheses and Theories :: Mechanistically applied from Others
We proudly call Geography a Science… a discipline almost 2250+ Years Old
but seriously suffers from the absence of the ‘Universal Laws of Geography’!
That’s why, the IVY League of Universities shut down their Geography
Department in the late 1950s: No Law – No Science – No Research – No
Funding.
It shook the World. The QR began in order to regain its status by an all-
out effort to build Theories and Laws.

6. With roots in the 1950s, quantitative revolution (QR - I) actually took place the
1960s. The four main factors that promoted and maintained the development of
a new approach in geography were –
1. the availability of geographical data,
2. the pace of change in the geographical phenomena,
3. the technological changes in handling the information and
4. a pervasive belief in the usefulness of science.
More emphasis was then given on the problem of why-man-lives-as-he-does
and less on how he lives. This involves changes in methods by incorporating
ideas from other disciplines.
Geographers began talking of – spatial analysis, inferential techniques,
concepts, laws, models, theories, behaviour, perception, prediction, ecosystem,
linkages, matrices, equations, formulae and paradigms. Scientific explanation is
given in-terms-of abstract mathematical and statistical parameters. Quantitative
Geographers viewed the human landscape in terms of set patterns, ordered
processes and strict regularities.
The effect of QR – I on geography has been to emphasise contemporary
phenomena and to consider its historical trends. These added to the value and
worth of geography. The analysis of spatial patterns and of the processes of
change has many applications and geographers have been quick to recognise
and promote the practical value of their work.

7. With roots in the 1970s, paradigm shift took place with ideas taken from Sociology and
Psychology in the early 1980s.
A new approach, known variously as humanistic, sociologistic or behaviouralistic
developed, that set human conditions against a real world background and recognise
the faults of man-made systems and place them in national and global contexts.
It certainly brought human geography into the mainstream of economic, sociological
and political thoughts and human geographers became concerned evermore with
contemporary issues like, pollution, energy crisis, inequalities of wealth, social justice,
global warming, international allegiances, military and psychological warfare, breakdown
of moral values, human contentment, evolution of political thought, feminism etc.
It then found a completely new orientation, keeping its spatial frame unaltered ―
1. Content: Physical Geography  Human / Social Geography
2. Principle: Why man lives where-he-lives  How man lives where-he-lives
3. Foundation: General Criteria of Development  Specific Criteria of Quality of Life
4. Approach:  Toward more Thematic and Holistic one
5. Emphasis:  On more relevant Economic, Social, Political and Environmental issues
6. Scale: Local  Global
7. Methods: Rigidly Static  Highly Flexible Techniques
8. Cartographic Base: Analogue  Digital Format
9. Explanation: Environmentalism  Possibilism / Probabilism
10.Goal:  Toward better Management, Planning and Development of the Human
Habitat, Economy, and Society

8. The effect of the QRs led to a ‘deep-rooted redirection of the discipline’ of geography in
three ways —
1. The teaching of statistical techniques remains a key and virtually universal element in
the training of new geographers.
2. The growing interest in geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing
(RS) and a resurgence of interest in spatial statistics seem likely to buttress the
quantitative approach in geography for the foreseeable future.
3. Statistical techniques survived a counter-reaction to the QR because at a practical
level they offered something new to the Marxists, Structuralists, Political, Economic
and even Behaviouralist approaches.
a.With roots in the 1980s, the age of ISC (I = information, S = satellite and C =
computer) took off in the 1990s. Methodological changes took place again, known as
the digital revolution (QR – II).
b.Readymade GIS and Image processing software are now available, e.g., ArcGis, IGiS,
IDRISI, Erdas, TNT Mips, MapInfo, Supermap GIS, Geomatica, ENVI, JT Maps,
Gram++, Vertical Mapper, GlobalMapper, SAGA GIS, Q-GIS, etc.
c.Sky is already crowded with various orbit-specific and object-specific satellites that
constantly transmit high resolution data about earth (e.g., INSAT, IRS, LANDSAT,
SPOT, RADARSAT, CARTOSAT, METEOSAT, RESOURCESAT, IKONOS).
d.Over the last quarter of the 20th Century, the volume of information available and the
facility for the transfer of such data between individuals and organisations have been
developing very fast. The ease with which modern academic geographers can access
and process such data by means of a computer terminal on their desk is amazing.

9. GeoCube
To understand, the mosaic of “Modern
Geography”, lets imagine a Cube with 6
Planes, each representing a
Geographer’s perspective as follows—
1. Exploring our World (Global Issues
Geographers now exploring)
2. Fascinating Earth (Physical Earth
Geographers’ main concern)
3. Living Together (Human Society,
Economy and Development
Geographers normally address)
4. Shrinking Planet (Human Exploitation of
Earth as the Geographer’s concern)
5. Useful Geographies (Man’s Activity
Space - measured, monitored, mapped
and modeled by GIS & RS)
6. Earth from all Angles (Regional
Complexities Geographers focus on)
On each of these Planes lies a set of 9
Parameters as follows —
A
B
C
F
ED

10. A.Exploring our World: Global Issues
1.Species Extinction 2.Deforestation 3.Ozone Hole Formation
4. Climate Change 5. Weather Forecasting 6.Population Growth
and Distribution

11. A. Exploring Our World
7. Aging Population 8. Tourism 9. War
1.Earthquakes 2. Tsunami 3. Volcanoes
B. Fascinating Earth (Physical Earth)

12. 4. Storms 5. Hurricanes 6. Floods
B. Fascinating Earth (Physical Earth)
7. Drought 8. Forest Fires 9. Conflicts in
Earth Systems

13. C. Living Together (Human Society, Economy and Development)
1. Ethnicity 2. Language 3. Literacy
and Religion
4. Health 5. Migration 6. Mobility

14. 7. Poverty 8. Economic Development 9. Pollution in Cities
C. Living Together (Human Society, Economy and Development)
1.Nature 2. Minerals 3. Water Resources
D. Shrinking Planet (Human Exploitation of our Earth)

15. 4. Land Resources 5. Energy Resources 6.Agriculture
D. Shrinking Planet (Human Exploitation of our Earth)
7. Food Resources 8. Housing 9. Waste and
Distribution Pollution

16. E. Useful Geographies (Man’s Activity Space)
1. Risk 2. Transport 3.Planning
4. Education 5. GIS 6. Geographic Skills

17. 7. Using Maps 8. Facilities Management 9. Resources
Management
E. Useful Geographies (Man’s Activity Space)
1. Mountains 2. Deserts 3. Wetlands
F. Earth from all Angles (Regional Complexities)

18. F. Earth from all Angles (Regional Complexities)
4. Rivers 5. Oceans and Seas 6. Karst Landscape
7. Polar Region 8. Rural Landscape 9.Urban Landscape

19. since 1970s … a sharp rise in Global Resource
Information System (gris) facilitated by satellites /
satellite-aided
geodetic,
cartographic and
geostatistical methods
this enormous informationbase needs an entirely new
methods of analysis and
interpretation
hence, emerged an entirely new branch of learning and
methodology,
“geoinformatics”

20. geoinformatics creates ─
an opportunity
for presenting spatial events in a new way;
a situation in which
quantity translates into quality and also,
spatial data of a new quality are created;
development of S&T (especially in areas of
satellite remote sensing, informatics and
other fields related to it);
development of gis; and
the origin of global information systems

21. gives geography new visions /opportunities in ─
quality data acquisition,
precise spatial analysis,
dynamic analyses, and
identifying the relationships between and among its
various components (habitat, economy & society).
now, the data can be disseminated in
various traditional and
modern cartographic forms.
multi-dimensional forms,
dynamic animated images and
various sorts of databases (that combine
spatial information about various aspects of
the environment)

22. widacki, 2001 views …..
michalak, 2001 views …..Oledzki, 2001 views …..

23. 1. Data refers to a collection of facts or figures that pertains to places, people,
things, objects, events and concepts.
2. These are represented in the following basic forms—numerical values,
alphanumeric characters, symbols and signals.
3. When data is transformed through processes such as structuring,
formatting, conversion and modelling to a form that is meaningful to a user,
it is referred to as information. Therefore, information is the processed or
value-added data.
4. The transformation of data into useful information is the core function of an
information system. It is built up to achieve the specific objectives of
collecting, storing, analysing and presenting information in a systematic
manner to be used in some decision making processes.

24. 1. Toolbox-based definitions
“… a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming
and displaying spatial data from the real world.” (Burrough 1986)
“… a system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analysing and
displaying data which are spatially referenced to the earth.” (DOE 1987)
2. Database definitions
“… an internally referenced, automated, spatial information system.” (Berry
1986)
3. Organisation-based definitions
“… a decision support system involving the integration of spatially referenced
data in a problem solving environment.” (Cowen 1988)
1. Geographic Information
System (GIS)
2. Remote Sensing (RS)
3. Photogrammetry
4. Global Positioning System
(GPS)
Constituents of Geo-informatics

25. Why Geographic Information is Special
1. It is multi-dimensional because two coordinates
must be specified to define a location, whether
they be x and y or longitude (λ) and latitude (φ).
2. It is voluminous, since a geographic database
can easily reach a terabyte in size.
3. It may be represented at different levels of
spatial resolution.
4. It may be represented in different ways inside a
computer and the way it is done can strongly
influence the ease of analysis and the end
results.
5. It must be projected onto a flat surface applying
principles of projection because (1) a flat paper
is used as a medium for inputting data to GIS
and also for outputting data in a map or image
from and (2) rasters are inherently flat.
6. It can be time consuming to analyse.
7. The process of updating geographic information
is complex and expensive.
8. Display of geographic information in the form of
maps requires the retrieval of large amounts of
data.

26. WHY GIS?
“EVERY OBJECT ON THE EARTH CAN BE GEO-REFERENCED”
ANSWERS QUERIES:
• What is at…?
• Where is it…?
• What has changed since…?
• What spatial pattern exists...?
• What if…(modeling scenario)?
The 4 Ms of a GIS
Measurement, Mapping, Monitoring and Modeling
GIS HIERARCHY
60%20%
10%
10%
Database Methodology Software Hardware
Components of a GIS

28. FRAMEWORK OF A GIS
Vector Data
(Digitized Maps)
Raster Data
(Scanned Maps)
Raster Data
(Images)
Alphanumeric Data
Data Input
DATA
Data Analysis Data Storage
(Database)
Data Output
Hardware / Software
System
HARDWARE / SOFTWARE
Implementation
of Plans
Monitoring
Planning
Application
ADMINISTRATION
Functional Methodology
A Multi-Disciplinary Symbiosis
CARTOGRAPHY CAD
PHOTOGRAMMETRY DBMS
REMOTE SENSING IMAGE PROCESSING
GPS
GIS
The 3 Aspects of a GIS
1. Analyse Maps
2. Program & Customize
Applications
3. Database Management

29. BENEFITS OF USING GIS
1. Helps supplement basic steps in Designing
2. Allows User to Model one’s view of Data (as the same features often
represent different things) especially in the context of rivers and river basins
that house and serve multi-dimensional elements and functions)
NETWORK AREAL FEATURE SINUOUS LINE BOUNDARY
3. Display and Analysis of Information depends on ‘how geographic objects are
modeled from the real world’.

30. FACILITATES GEOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION
• Integration of RASTER data and characterizing continuous phenomena with
RASTERS
• DIGITIZATION: Conversion of RASTER to VECTOR data –
representing discrete features with Point, Lines, Areas
• Modeling surfaces with TINs (Triangulated Irregular Networks), DEMs (Digital
Elevation Models) or DTMs (Digital Terrain Models)
RASTERS VECTORS SURFACE
(Scanned Maps & Images) (Digitized Contours) (TIN & DEM)

33. 0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
SURFACE PLOT OF DRAINAGE DENSITY
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.005.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00

34. Profiles Extracted from TIN using Profile Extractor
PROFILE LINE
Internet GIS
A supplement to the former desktop GIS, it has
developed widely.
The user doesn’t have the required geo-spatial
data on his/her desktop, but accesses it from
a remote server that works with a pre-set
database, with some allpications combining
traditional GIS mapping technology with
remote-sensing to further enhance the
avalable products.
Its hugely successful as large number of users can
constantly access, modify and customize the
data according to their own needs. Ex.
GoogleEarth, WorldWind

36. GEOVISUALIZATION

39. DISTRICT INFORMATION MAPS GENERATED USING IRS-1D LISS – III
IMAGES
Retreat of the Gangotri GlacierThe Shifting Missouri

40. NASA World Wind: World Temperatures World Wind: Natural Disasters
World Wind: Dust Storms over Mediterranean Nagapattinam after the Tsunami

41. Some Applications of GIS+RS+GPS
Creating Geodatabase Studying The “Sorrow of Bihar”
Landslide Hazard Mapping Classifying River Channels

42. The term “remote sensing” means obtaining information about an object
without touching the object itself.
It concerns two essential facets—
1. the technology of acquiring data through a device which is located at a
distance from the object,
2. both being intimately linked with each other.
In all practicality, the intervening space between the sensor and the earth is
filled with air (aerial platform) or is even partly vacuum (space platform). Only
electromagnetic waves are able to serve as an efficient link between the two.
Hence, remote sensing (also called RS) implies the “data acquisition of
electromagnetic radiation from sensors flying on aerial or space platforms, and
its interpretation for deciphering ground object characteristics.” (Gupta 2003).
The most concise and technical definition is that “it is the practice of deriving
information about the earth’s land and water surfaces using images acquired
from an overhead perspective, using electromagnetic radiation in one or more
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, reflected or emitted from the earth’s
surface.” (Campbell 1997).

43. RS has several unique features that have made it
very useful in geographical analysis, particularly
measuring, mapping, monitoring and modelling the
surface features of the earth.
1. It is certainly not just a data-collection process; it
also includes data analysis—the methods and
processes of extracting meaningful high-quality
spatial (geographic) information from the
remotely sensed data for direct input in a
modern GIS application.
2. Traditionally, such environmental data was
collected through direct measurements in the
field through instrumentation and ground survey.
3. It was very expensive, labour intensive and time
consuming.
4. As an alternative, the science of remote sensing
developed very fast and has become universal
in nature and application.
5. From an orbital platform in space, it provides the
easiest, cheapest and quickest means to keep
our GIS database up-to-date.
6. It can easily be integrated with other types of
raster GIS data for further analysis.

47. 0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Wavelength (nm)
Radiance(Wm
-2
nm
-1
sr
-1
) average shrub
average grass
average soil
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Wavelength (nm)
Reflectance
average shrub
average grass
average soil
What we measure in Remote Sensing.
RS Platforms

49. The performance of a sensor is expressed by the
following 4 resolution characteristics—
Spatial Resolution
1. It is the ability of the RS system in recording the
spatial details. The standard aerial camera with
(9”×9“) format produces photographs with a resolution
of 20–40 lp/mm and the modern cameras 60 lp/mm.
2. Landsat MSS detectors, the spatial resolution =79 m.
3. The IKONOS-2 = 1 m PAN and 4 m MSS
4. Quickbird-2 = 0.61m PAN and 2.5 m MSS.
Spectral Resolution
1. It refers to the EMR wavelengths to which an RS
system is sensitive. It has 2 components—the number
of wavelength bands (or channels) used and the width
of each band. A large number of bands and a narrow
bandwidth gives higher spectral resolution.
2. The spectral resolution of an aerial photograph is very
low.
3. Landsat TM and ETM+ with 7 bands (0.45–0.515 mm,
0.525–0.605 mm, 0.63–0.69 mm, 0.75–0.90 mm,
1.55–1.75 mm, 10.40–12.50 mm, 2.09–2.35 mm)
have higher spectral resolution. allows more unique
spectral signatures of Narrow bandwidths objects.
0.4 mm 0.7 mm
Color
Images
Blue Green Red

50. Radiometric Resolution
1. It is the smallest difference in radiant
energy that can be detected by a sensor.
2. In aerial photography, it is inversely
proportional to the contrast of the film.
3. For digital images, it refers to the number
of discrete levels into which a signal may
be divided during the analogue to digital
conversion, known as the quantisation
level.
4. Landsat MSS detectors = 26, or 64 (0 –
63).
5. Landsat TM detectors = 28 , or 256 (0 –
255).
6. AVIRIS data = 212 , or 4096 (0 – 4095).
Temporal Resolution
It refers to the frequency of data collection. High
temporal resolution facilitates change detection and
monitoring of environmental phenomena.
For satellite remote sensing, it refers to repeat
coverage, i.e., number of days required for an orbiting
satellite to return to the same point on earth.

53. • High Spatial Resolution
- IKONOS launched in 1999 by Space Imaging
(4 m multi-spectral and 1 m panchromatic)
- QuickBird launched in 2001 by DIGITALGLOBE
(2.44 m multi-spectral and 61 cm panchromatic)
• High Spectral Resolution
- AVIRIS, 10nm and 20 m, 224 bands
- Hyperion launched in 2000, 10nm and 30m, 220 bands
• High Radiometric Resolution
- 8 bits to 12 bits
• High Temporal Resolution
- GOES 15-30 minutes
- NEXRAD 6 or 10 minutes
Landsat FCC
IKONOS 4m MSS
QuickBird 0.61m
SPOT 2.5m

54. IKONOS 1m Panchromatic
RADAR IMAGE
LIDAR IMAGE • Globe Coverage with improved Temporal Resolution
- AVHRR, 1100m, morning or afternoon
- MODIS, 250-1000m, morning or afternoon
- NPOESS (will be launched in 2013), 370-740m, 4 hours
• Real-time or near Real-time availability
- MODIS available online in the second day ?
- NEXRAD available online in 6 minutes
- NPOESS available online in 15 minutes
• Cost free or Affordable
- Most of the federal collected images are free available or
lower cost, while commercial high resolution images are
affordable.
• Integrated RS and GIS
- Remote sensing applications with the support of GIS
- Remote sensing data as a major GIS data source

56. Prof Georg Gartner (August 2014):
“Starting as a geographer and
cartographer dealing with details on how
to deal with signs, graphic variables and
basically modelling the syntax of
cartographic language,
I have evolved into becoming interested
in the meaning of this form from a more
semantical perspective and finally end up
in being interested in the enormous
power and potential of the pragmatic
dimension of cartography,
Thus understanding maps not only as a
collection of signs and graphics,
but that those signs carry a specific
meaning for a particular human being or
community in a particular situation,
thereby leading to an immersive way of
human communication.”

57. It’s important: Make sure your teachers, parents, neighbours, and friends
aren’t out of the loop. Go to MyWonderfulWorld.org so they can get geography,
too.
You can now declare that ―
I didn’t make any mistake in my life pursuing “Geography”, and
I believe, I have been able to make some of my most Critical
Teachers, Scholars and Students feel happy and proud of me.
The naïve or common-sense geography is practiced more widely
by people.
Be a Geographer today
just as Man has been from
the Dawn of his Existence.

58. Thank You Everybody
Prof Ashis Sarkar
profdrashis@gmail.com
+91 98 36 55 2173
Managing Editor and Publisher: Indian Journal of Spatial Science
www.indiansss.org
editorijss@gmail.com