Environmental degradation (ED) is the condition whereby the quality, usefulness and stability of the environment is reduced or destroyed by human activities. This leads to the destruction of plants and animals on our planet earth. It limits human ability to meet the basic needs as well. It reduces soil fertility, and makes the water dirty and the air unhealthy. Fundamentally, ED is a manifest of the dynamic inter play of physical (flood, cyclone, cloud burst, sub-aerial erosion, earthquake, volcanism, tsunami, etc), economic (market, level and pattern of economic development, transport, etc), social (population, poverty, urbanization, etc), institutional and technological activities. Normally, environmental changes are driven by a large number of factors including economic growth, population growth, urbanization, intensification of agriculture, rising energy use and transportation. Land degradation, deforestation, wetland degradation, pollution of air, water and soil, and wild life destruction are the broad types of ED. Each one of these is a direct function of population and poverty. Poverty bears a deep linkage with ED both in the rural and urban settings, and it still remains a problem at the root of almost all kinds of the global environmental issues. The current presentation makes herewith an attempt to explore the salient features of ED in the contemporary world in a thematic way.

1. Environmental Degradation

2. Environmental degradation (ED) is the condition whereby the quality,
usefulness and stability of the environment is reduced or destroyed by
human activities.
1.This leads to the destruction of plants
and animals on our planet earth.
2.It limits human ability to meet the
basic needs as well.
3.It reduces soil fertility, and makes the
water dirty and the air unhealthy;
4.In other words, the natural
environment gets destroyed.

4. Basically, ED is a manifest of the dynamic inter play of
—
1.Physical
2.Economic
3.Social
4.Institutional, and
5.Technological factors.

5. The Physical Factors include —
1. flood,
2. cyclone,
3. cloud burst,
4. sub-aerial erosion,
5. earthquake,
6. volcanism,
7. tsunami, etc.

6. The Economic Factors are —
1. Market
2. Level of Economic Development
3. Pattern of Economic Development
4. Transport, etc
The Social Factors are —
• Population
• Poverty
• Urbanization, etc
The other Factors are —
1.Institutional, and
2.Technological Activities
“Lack of awareness and infrastructure makes implementation of most of the laws relating to environment, extremely difficult
and ineffective”.

7. Normally, Environmental Changes are driven by
the factors like —
1. Economic Growth,
2. Population Growth,
3. Urbanization,
4. Intensification of Agriculture,
5. Rising Energy Use, and
6. Transportation.
Economic Factors —
Poorly Functioning Markets for environmental goods and services,
Market Distortions created by price controls and subsidies,
Manufacturing Technology intensively using resources and energy,
Expansion of Chemical Industry,
Growing Transport Activities,
Expansion of Port and Harbour Activities.

8. The broad types of ED are —
1. Land Degradation
2. Deforestation
3. Wetland Degradation
4. Pollution of Air, Water and Soil, and
5. Wild life Destruction
Each one of these is a direct function of Population and
Poverty.
These still remains at the root of almost all kinds of the
Global Environmental Issues.

9. Land Degradation
The main processes of land
degradation in India are —
1. water erosion,
2. wind erosion,
3. vegetal degradation through
deforestation and overgrazing
4. agricultural exploitation
5. industrialization, and
6. urbanization
7. huge population growth.

11. Deforestation
Major Causes of Contemporary Deforestation—
1. Corruption of Government Institutions
2. Inequitable Distribution of Wealth and Power,
3. Population Growth and Overpopulation
4. Urbanization
5. Globalization

12. Wetland degradation
Activities resulting in wetlands loss and degradation—
1. agriculture,
2. commercial and residential development,
3. road construction,
4. impoundment,
5. resource extraction,
6. industrial siting, processes, and waste,
7. dredge disposal,
8. silviculture, and
9. mosquito control.
The primary pollutants causing degradation are — sediment,
nutrients, pesticides, salinity, heavy metals, weeds, low dissolved oxygen,
pH, and selenium.
Major Activities causing Wetland Impairment—
Hydrologic alteration, Urbanization including development, Marinas / boats,
Industry including industrial development, Agriculture, Silviculture, Mining,
Atmospheric Deposition.

13. Major primary Air Pollutants due to human
activity include—
SOx, NOx, CO, CO2, CFCs, NH3, Particulate
Matter, Free Radicals, Volatile Organic
Compounds, Toxic Metals like lead, cadmium and
copper, and Radioactive Pollutants.
Secondary pollutants include—
Particulate matter, Groundlevel O3, Peroxyacetyl
Nitrate (PAN)
Minor air pollutants include —
A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants,
a variety of persistent organic pollutants
Air Pollution

14. Water Pollution
Causes may be both natural and
anthropogenic, the most common being
—
Agriculture Runoff,
Storm Water Runoff,
Leaking Sewer Lines,
Mining Activities,
Foundries,
Accidental Leaks and Spills,
Illegal Discharges of Waste,
Burning of Fossil Fuels,
Transportation,
Construction Activities,
Plastic materials / wastes in contact with
Water,
Disposal of Personal Care Products and
Household Chemicals,
Improper Disposal of Batteries,
Leaking Landfills,
Animal Wastes, etc

15. Wild Life Destruction
Habitat Destruction — logging, mining, oil drilling,
exploiting other natural resources; clearing land
for agriculture / cattle ranches; development for
residential areas, construction of roads for people.
1. Half of the plant and animal species live in
rainforests.
2. An acre of tropical forest disappears every second.
3. Most deforestation has occurred in the last few
decades. If the present rate continues, today’s
forests will be gone by the year 2081.
4. Wetlands are steadily vanishing as developers fill in
small ponds or parts of swamps and deltas.
Wetlands not only support wildlife but also filter the
drinking supply humans rely on.
5. The Prairies, Temperate Forests, Deserts, Coastal
Regions, Coral Reefs, Mangroves ecosystems are at
risk.

16. Consequences of ED

22. Duration Rainfall Location Date
1 minute 38.10 mm Barot, India 26 November 1970
5 minutes 61.72 mm Port Bells, Panama 29 November 1911
15 minutes 198.12 mm Plumb Point, Jamaica 12 May 1916
20 minutes 205.74 mm Curtea-de-Arges, Romania 7 July 1947
40 minutes 234.95 mm Guinea, Virginia, USA 24 August 1906
1 hour 250 mm Ladakh, India August 5, 2010
12 hours 1144 mm GFoc-Foc, La Réunion January 8, 1966
24 hours 1825 mm Foc-Foc, La Réunion January 8, 1966
Cloudbursts

23. India
a cloudburst usually occurs when a pregnant monsoon cloud
drifts northwards, from the Bay of Bengal or Arabian Sea
across the plains, then onto the Himalayas and bursts,
bringing rainfall as high as 75 mm per hour.
1. September 28, 1908: a cloudburst resulted in a flood where the Musi
River was swelled. About 15,000 people were killed and around 80,000
houses were destroyed along the banks of this river.
2. July, 1970 — Cloudburst in the upper catchment area led to a 15 m rise in
the Alaknanda river in Uttarakhand. Entire river basin, from
Hanumanchatti to Haridwar was affected. An entire village was swept
away.
3. August 15, 1997: 115 people were killed when a cloud burst came bustling
and trail of death are all that is left behind in Chirgaon in Simla District,
HP.
4. July 16, 2003: About 40 persons were killed in flash floods caused by a
cloudburst at Shilagarh in Gursa area of Kullu, HP.

24. 1. July 26, 2005: A cloudburst caused 950 mm of rainfall in Mumbai in 8 - 10
hours, completely paralysing the city.
2. August 16, 2007: 52 people died when a severe cloud burst occurred in
Bhavi village in Ghanvi, HP.
3. August 7, 2009: 38 people were killed in a landslide resulting from a
cloudburst in Nachni area near Munsiyari, Uttarakhand.
4. August 6, 2010: a series of cloudbursts left over 1000 persons dead and
over 400 injured in Leh, Ladakh.
5. June 9, 2011: near Jammu, a cloudbursts left 4 persons dead and several
injured in Doda-Batote Highway, Jammu.
6. July 20, 2011: a cloudburst in upper Manali, HP left 2 dead and 22 missing.
7. September 15, 2011: a cloudburst flooded Terminal-3 of the Indira Gandhi
International Airport in the Palam area of New Delhi.

25. Pakistan
1. July 1, 1977: Karachi was flooded by a cloud burst (207 mm in 24
hours).
2. July 23, 2001: 620 mm in 10 hours in Islamabad (heaviest in100 years).
3. July 18, 2009: 245 mm in 4 hours caused massive flooding in Karachi.
4. July 29, 2010: 280 mm in 24 hours in Risalpur.
5. July 29, 2010: 274 mm in 24 hours in Peshawar .
6. August 10, 2011: 291 mm in 24 hours in Mithi, Sindh.
7. August 11, 2011: 350 mm in 24 hours in Sindh Pakistan.
8. September 7, 2011: 312 mm in 24 hours in Sindh Pakistan.
Bangladesh
1. September, 2004: 341 mm of rain in Dhaka in 24 hours.
2. June 11, 2007: 425 mm of rain in 24 hours in Chittagong.
3. July 29, 2009:333 mm of rain was recorded in Dhaka, in 24 hours.
4. July 13, 1956: 326 mm of rain was recorded in Dhaka, in 24 hours.

26. Disasters: consequence of ED
Natural Disaster: the consequence of a hazardous
event, occurring when human activities and natural
phenomenon (a physical event, such as a volcanic
eruption, earthquake, landslide etc. that does not affect
human beings) become enmeshed. The resulting
fatalities, or property damages depend on the capacity of
the population to support or resist the disaster.

27. Industrial Disaster
Mass disaster either by
accident, negligence or
incompetence.
The Bhopal Disaster in India, killing over 15,000 people,
injuring many more, and causing severe health hazard in the
region.
It was caused by the accidental release of 40 tonnes of
methyl isocyanate (MIC) from a Union Carbide India, Limited
located in the heart of the city of Bhopal, MP.

28. It is a long-lasting weather
pattern consisting of dry
conditions with very little or no
precipitation.
During this period, food and
water supplies can run low, and
other conditions, such as
famine, can result.
It can last for several years and
are particularly damaging in
areas in which the residents
depend on agriculture for
survival.
The Dust Bowl is a famous
example of a severe drought.
Draught

29. It is a sudden shift or
movement in the tectonic
plate in the Earth's crust.
On the surface, this is
manifested by a moving and
shaking of the ground, and
can be massively damaging
to poorly built structures.
The most powerful
earthquakes can destroy
even the best built of
structures.
They are capable of killing
hundreds of thousands of
people, such as in 2004
Indian Ocean earthquakes.
Earthquake

30. It is a massive outbreak
and spread of an
infectious disease, and
is historically the most
dangerous of all
natural disasters.
Different diseases
cause different
epidemics.
Examples:
Black Death,
Smallpox,
AIDS.
Epidemic

31. A Disaster characterized by a widespread lack of food and
livestock, required for basic nutrition and survival.
It is almost always caused by pre-existing conditions, such as
drought, but its effects may be exacerbated by social factors,
such as war.
Particularly devastating examples include the Ethiopian famine
and the Irish Potato Famine.
Famine

32. It is a natural disaster caused
by too much rain or water in
a location.
It can be caused by
prolonged rainfall from a
storm, including rapid
melting of large amounts of
snow, or rivers which swell
from excess precipitation
upstream and cause
widespread damage to areas
downstream, or less
frequently the bursting of
man-made dams or levees.
Floods

33. Forest Fire
It is a natural disaster
consisting of a fire, which
destroys a forested area,
and can be a great danger
to people who live in
forests as well as wildlife.
These are generally started
by lightning, but also by
human negligence or arson,
and can burn thousands of
square kilometers.

34. It is a natural disaster where a thunderstorm produces numerous
hailstones, which damage the location in which they fall.
It can be especially devastating to farm fields, ruining crops and
damaging equipment.
A particularly damaging hailstorm hit Munich, Germany on August
31, 1986, felling thousands of trees and causing millions of dollars
in insurance claims.
Hailstorms

35. It is characterized by extreme unusual heat in the area in which it
occurs.
These are rare and require specific combinations of weather events
to take place, and may include temperature inversions, katabatic
winds, or other phenomena.
The worst heat wave in recent history was the European Heat Wave
of 2003.
Heat Wave

36. These are cyclonic storm systems that
forms over the oceans.
It is caused by evaporated water that
comes off of the ocean and becomes a
storm.
The Coriolis Effect causes the storms to
spin, and a hurricane is declared when
this spinning mass of storms attains a
wind speed greater than 74 mph.
Hurricane is used for these phenomena
in the Atlantic Ocean, tropical cyclone
in the Indian Ocean, and typhoon in the
Eastern Pacific Ocean.
Tropical Cyclones

37. It is a disaster closely related
to an avalanche, but instead of
occurring with snow, it occurs
involving actual elements of
the ground, including rocks,
trees, parts of houses, and
anything else which may
happen to be swept up.
It can be caused by
earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, or general instability
in the surrounding land.
Mudslides, or mud flows, are a
special case of landslides, in
which heavy rainfall causes
loose soil on steep terrain to
collapse and slide downwards.
Landslides

38. It is a giant wave of water
which rolls into the shore of
an area with a height of
over 15 m.
It can be caused by
— undersea earthquakes as
in the 2004 Indian Ocean
Earthquake, or
— by landslides such as the
one which occurred at
Lituya Bay, Alaska.
The tsunami generated by
the 2004 Indian Ocean
Earthquake currently ranks
as the deadliest tsunami in
recorded history.
Tsunami

39. Poverty and ED

40. Determinants of Poverty
Probability of being Poor depends on:
Individual Characteristics — age, gender, ethnicity.
Household Characteristics — family size, dependency ratio.
Asset Endowments — natural, human, physical, financial, and social
capital.
Low Productivity as of — market failures, weak institutions, public good
deficits, unfavorable policies.
Determinants of ED
Market Failures:
Lack of Access to Credit and High Discount Rate leads to unsustainable
extraction rates.
Lack of Access to Insurance increases risk aversion and reluctance to
adopt new technologies.
No Markets for Environmental Services (watershed management,
carbon capture, conservation of biodiversity).
Property Rights Failures:
Insecure Property Rights.
Over-extraction.
Disincentive to Invest because of Incomplete Reward.

41. Poverty
increases risk aversion,
leads to ill health,
reduces capacity to invest ,
raises demand for children,
……all of which impact negatively on the environment
Environmental Degradation
It reduces the stock of natural capital and the poor are
disproportionately affected.
It increases vulnerability (e.g. soil erosion …… decreased yields,
deforestation…flooding).
Pollution increases morbidity and mortality (e.g. exposure to
pesticides, contaminated water, air pollution).
Deforestation increases the cost of basic goods, such as
firewood and drinking water.

42. The Poverty-Population-Environment Spiral
“Poverty” affects “population” through:
Can’t afford family planning
…
…
“Population” affects “poverty” through:
Surplus labor, low wages
…
…
“Poverty” affects “environment” through:
High discount rate/myopic behavior
…
…
“Environment” affects “poverty” through:
Increased vulnerability
…
…
“Population” affects “environment” through:
increased demand for non-renewable /
renewable resources
“Although the relationship
between poverty and
environment is highly variable,
the ‘downward spiral’ is both
avoidable and reversible in
many circumstances.
Poor people have an
unrecognized potential for
adaptation and innovation.”
Sara Scherr 2000

48. Is there a poverty-degradation spiral?
Yes, there is a spiral through:
Myopic behavior of the Poor (poverty → degradation)
Loss of Assets…. (degradation → poverty)
But most of the observed links are due to factors that jointly
cause Poverty and ED.
Smart Policies for joint reduction of poverty and
ED—
Increase poor people’s access to natural resources essential to their
livelihoods;
Work with the poor to increase the productivity of their natural
resources;
Create markets for environmental services provided by poor farmers
and communities (e.g. water quality, biodiversity, carbon sinks).

49. The rich are the main source of degradation (big logging
companies, livestock operations, over-consumption).
Traditional technologies are conservation friendly (agro-ecology,
agroforestry).
The poor can adopt win-win technologies that raise incomes and
increase conservation: ecoagriculture, ecotourism.
Cooperation in the management of Common Property Resources.
The poor can be environmental activists (Chipko movement in India,
Chico Mendes rubber tappers in Brazil).
Markets for environmental services induce conservation by the poor:
Ecotourism Upstream-downstream water payments.
Poverty Need Not be a Source of Resource Degradation

50. Environmental Policy in India

51. Ancient India:
The Arthashastra by Kautilya (321 – 300 BC): provisions to regulate a
number of aspects related to Environment.
The 5th Pillar edict of Emperor Ashoka also contains such regulations.
During the British Reign in India:
Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act, 1853.
The Indian Penal Code, 1860.
The Elephant’s Preservation Act, 1879.
The Indian Easements Act, 1882.
The Fisheries Act, 1897.
The Factories Act, 1897.
The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905.
The Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act, 1912.
Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912.
Modern India:
National Council for Environmental Policy and Planning was set up in
1972 later evolved into Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF) in 1985.
MoEF and the Pollution Control Boards (CPCB and SPCBs) together form
the Regulatory and Administrative Core.

52. MoEF (1992): Abatement of Pollution, National Conservation Strategy,
and Environment and Development.
1993: The EAP (Environmental Action Programme) to improve
Environmental Services and integrating it with Development
Programmes.
National Environment Policy, 2006
It the first initiative in environmental protection in a comprehensive
manner.
It diagnoses the causative factors of land degradation to flag the remedial
measures.
It recognizes fiscal, tariff and sectoral policies have their impacts on land
degradation.
The solutions comprise —
adoption of science-based and traditional land-use practices,
pilot-scale demonstrations,
adoption of Multi-stakeholder partnerships,
promotion of agro-forestry,
organic farming,
environmentally sustainable cropping patterns, and
adoption of efficient irrigation techniques.

53. Constitutional Framework
Article 21 - Fundamental Rights
Article 48A - Directive Principles of State Policy
Article 51A(g) - Fundamental Duties
Legislative Framework
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
Atomic Energy Act of 1982
Motor Vehicles Act ,1988
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA)
The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997
Public Liability Insurance Act (PLIA), 1991
National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995

54. Environmental Impact Assessment
There are two types of EIA models —
the statutory model which makes the assessment of impact
compulsory under an enacted law, or
the administrative model under which an administration
finds out whether an impact study is necessary.
Till 1992, India was following the administrative model of EIA.
On 27th January, 1994 EIA Report was made mandatory by
Notification.
1997: Public hearing was made compulsory before impact assessment
is finalized.

55. Role of Judiciary
The Judiciary has come up with the “judge-driven implementation” of
environmental administration in India.
It has isolated specific environmental law principles upon
interpretation of Indian Statutes and Constitution.
Public Interest Litigations (PILs) is the characteristic feature of the
environmental litigation in India.
Disputes relating to environment are treated as cases related to
violation of fundamental rights.
The Supreme Court and the High Courts can be directly approached
under Article 32 and 226 of the Indian Constitution in case of
matters relating to Environment.
Role of Judiciary in imparting Environmental Justice
The Court Orders cover a wide range of areas including air, water,
solid waste, hazardous wastes, forests, mining activities, and
architectural treasures.
Policy Statements of the government, which otherwise are not
enforceable in Courts, have been used as aids by the Judges
for interpreting environmental statutes and for spelling out
obligations of the Government.

56. Doctrines Evolved by Courts
Public Trust Doctrine:
M.C.Mehta v. Kamal Nath, (1996) 1 SCC 38: In a case where an attempt was
made to divert flow of a river for augmenting facilities at a motel, it was
held that State and its instrumentalities as trustees have a duty to
protect and preserve natural resources.
MI Builders Pvt. Ltd. v. Radhey Shyam Sahu, AIR 1996 SC 2468: a city
development authority was asked to dismantle an underground market
built beneath a garden of historical importance
Precautionary Principle:
Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. UOI, AIR 1996 SC 2718: The principle was
adopted to check pollution of underground water caused by tanneries
in Tamil Nadu.
Narmada Bachao Andolan v. UOI, AIR 2000 SC 375: The Supreme Court held
that the precautionary principle could not be applied to the decision for
building a dam whose gains and losses were predictable and certain.
Polluter Pays Principle:
The object is to make the polluter liable for the compensation to the victims as
also for the cost of restoring of environmental degradation.
Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. UOI, AIR 1996 SC 2718: It was held that the
precautionary principle and the polluter pays principle are part of
environmental law of the country.

57. Absolute Liability Principle
M. C. Mehta v. UOI, AIR 1987 SC 1086 (Oleum Gas Leak Case): The
principle was adopted to compensate victims of pollution
caused by inherently dangerous industries.
Narmada Bacho Andolan v. UOI, AIR 2000 SC 375: The Supreme Court
held that the precautionary principle could not be applied to
the decision for building a dam whose gains and losses were
predictable and certain.
Sustainable Development
M.C. Mehta v. UOI, AIR 1997 SC 734 (Taj Trapezium Case): while
taking note of the disastrous effects that the emissions from
the Mathura Oil Refinery had on the Taj Mahal, the Supreme
Court applied the principle of sustainable development to the
case, and apart from passing various directions, stepped in to
execute and supervise the resultant actions.
State of Himachal Pradesh v. Ganesh Wood Products, AIR 1996 SC 149,
the Supreme Court invalidated forest based industry,
recognizing the principle of inter-generational equity and
sustainable development.

58. The activist is not the man who says the river is dirty. The activist is the
man who cleans up the river.
prof ashis sarkar, presidency university
profdrashis@gmail.com
THANK YOU