Introductions, Citations, Audience, and Commas

1. Elements of
an
Introduction
•The Topic Sentence
•The Thesis Statement
•Supporting Sentences
•The Conclusion
Sentence

2. GENERAL TO SPECIFIC
Throughout Western civilization, places such as the ancient Greek agora, the New England
town hall, the local church, the coffeehouse, the village square, and even the street corner
have been arenas for debate on public affairs and society. Out of thousands of such
encounters, “public opinion” slowly formed and became the context in which politics was
framed. Although the public sphere never included everyone, and by itself did not determine
the outcome of all parliamentary actions, it contributed to the spirit of dissent found in a
healthy representative democracy. Many of these public spaces remain, but they are no longer
centers for political discussion and action.They have largely been replaced by television and
other forms of media – forms that arguably isolate citizens from one another rather than
bringing them together.
– Mark Poster, “The Net as a Public Sphere”

3. OPENING WITH A
QUOTATION
There is a bumper sticker that reads, “Too bad ignorance isn’t painful.” I like
that. But ignorance is.We just seldom attribute the pain to it or even recognize it
when we see it.Take the postcard on my corkboard. It shows a young man in a
very hip jacket smoking a cigarette. In the background is a high school with the
American flag waving.The caption says, “Too cool for school.Yet too stupid for
the real world.” Out of the mouth of the young man is a bubble enclosing the
words “Maybe I’ll start a band.”There could be a postcard showing a jock in a
uniform saying, “I don’t need school. I’m going to the NFL or NBA.” Or one
showing a young man or woman studying and a group of young people saying,
“So you want to be white.” Or something equally demeaning. We need to quit it.
-Nikki Giovanni, “Racism 101”

4. OPENING WITH AN ANECDOTE
I first met Angela Carter at a dinner in honor of the Chilean writer Jose Donoso at the
home of Liz Calder, who then published all of us. My first novel was soon to be
published; it was the time of Angela’s darkest novel, The Passion of New Eve. And I
was a great fan. Mr. Donoso arrived looking like a Hispanic Buffalo Bill, complete with
silver goatee, fringed jacket and cowboy boots, and proceeded, as I saw it, to
patronize Angela terribly. His apparent ignorance of her work provoked me into a long
expostulation in which I informed him that the woman he was talking to was the most
brilliant writer in England. Angela liked that. By the end of the evening, we liked each
other, too.That was almost 18 years ago. She was the first great writer I ever met, and
she was one of the best, most loyal, most truth-telling, most inspiring friends anyone
could ever have. I cannot bear it that she is dead.
- Salman Rushdie, “Angela Carter”

5. OPENING
WITH A
QUESTION
When will international phone calls be free? Not
anytime soon, bub. But when you eventually get
your iPhone 4G, they should be included in your
rate plan. Which is weird, because it’s probably
been a long time since you nervously eyed the
clock while on the phone with your granny in
Smallville. Long distance has been all-you-can-eat
since cell phones and voice-over IP conquered the
universe. But international telephony – whether
landline, cellular, or internet-based – is still a
piggybank-rattling affair: Providers just can’t offer
dirt-cheap calls across borders.
- Cliff Kuang, “Burning Question”

6. OPENING WITH A STRONG OPINION
I have not always loved Dr. King. In the sixties I could not
understand his reaching beyond race to stand on
principle. I could not understand, or support, his own
example of “nonviolence.”There was so much I didn’t
know!
-June Jordan, Some of Us Did Not Die

7. Valerie Steele's anecdotal tone and dialogue in the opening sentences
of her essay on fashion in academia prepare the reader for her thesis:
Once, when I was a graduate student at Yale, a history professor
asked me about my dissertation. "I'm writing about fashion," I said.
“That's interesting. Italian or German?“
It took me a couple of minutes, as thoughts of Armani flashed through
my mind, but finally I realized what he meant. "Not fascism," I said.
"Fashion. As in Paris.“
"Oh." There was a long silence, and then, without another word, he
turned and walked away.
Fashion still has the power to reduce many academics to
embarrassed or indignant silence. Some of those to whom I spoke
while preparing this article requested anonymity or even refused to
address the subject. ("The F-Word." Lingua Franca April 1991: 17–
18.)

8. Newspapers and magazines produced for the
average reader tend to require much shorter
paragraphs than those published in academic
journals. When evaluating how you have
structured your ideas, pay attention to whether
you have varied the length of your paragraphs.
Long chunks of text without paragraph breaks
tend to make ideas seem complicated, perhaps
even inaccessible to the average reader. In turn,
short paragraphs can create a list-like style,
which intrudes on clarity and persuasive
appeal. Because long paragraphs tend to make a
document more complicated than short
paragraphs, you should consider how your
audience will perceive the structure of your
essay.

9. Christensen considers the following paragraph, which he
excerpted from Jacob Bronowski's The Common Sense of
Science, to be an example of a subordinate pattern
because the sentences become increasingly more specific
as the reader progresses through the paragraph:
1. The process of learning is essential to our lives.
2. All higher animals seek it deliberately.
3. They are inquisitive and they experiment.
4. An experiment is a sort of harmless trial run of some
action which we shall have to make in the real world;
and this, whether it is made in the laboratory by
scientists or by fox-cubs outside their earth.
5. The scientist experiments and the cub plays; both are
learning to correct their errors of judgment in a
setting in which errors are not fatal.
6. Perhaps this is what gives them both their air of
happiness and freedom in these activities.

10. Christensen is quick to point out that not all paragraphs
have a subordinate structure. The following one, which he
took from Bergen Evans's Comfortable Words, is an example
of what Christensen considers a coordinate sequence:
1. He [the native speaker] may, of course, speak a form of
English that marks him as coming from a rural or an
unread group.
2. But if he doesn't mind being so marked, there's no
reason why he should change.
3. Samuel Johnson kept a Staffordshire burr in his speech
all his life.
4. In Burns' mouth the despised lowland Scots dialect
served just as well as the "correct" English spoken by
ten million of his southern contemporaries.
5. Lincoln's vocabulary and his way of pronouncing certain
words were sneered at by many better educated people
at the time, but he seemed to be able to use the English
language as effectively as his critics.

11. To compare: also, likewise, similarly
To contrast: however, nevertheless,
conversely
To show cause and effect: as a result,
consequently, therefore
To show a logical relationship: since,
therefore, for this reason
To present a sequence of events: next, and
then, first/second/third
To illustrate or provide an example: for
example, for instance, for one thing
To add information: furthermore,
additionally, moreover

12. In-Text Citations (MLA)
For the most part, an in-text citation is the author’s name and the page
number (or just the page number, if the author is named in the
sentence) in parentheses:
Imperialism is “the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a
dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory” (Said 9).
or
According to Edward W. Said, imperialism is defined by “the practice,
the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling
a distant territory” (9).

13. In-Text Citations (APA)
When referencing information from a source, an in-text citation is
the author’s name, followed by a comma, and the year of publication,
in parentheses:
Imperialism is “the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a
dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory” (Said, 1993).
For direct quotes, give the page number as well.
Imperialism is “the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a
dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory” (Said, 1993, p.
8).

14. Formatting Titles for Books,
Movies, TV Series, or Albums
In Wuthering Heights, Nelly Dean treats Heathcliff poorly and dehumanizes him
throughout her narration.
Point of No Return, a remake of Nikita, deviates from the original French movie in
several ways.
In The Mindy Project’s “We Need to Talk about Annette,” writer Mindy Kaling
illustrates that the relationship between a man’s mother and his new girlfriend can
be extremely shaky when character Mindy Lahiri states, _________ (00:21:14 –
00:23:45).
He once expressed his distaste for communism, singing on “Revolution,” from the
self-titled album, The Beatles, “If you go carrying pictures of Chairman Mao, you’re
not gonna make it with anyone anyhow” (Beatles).

15. Formatting Titles for Short Stories,
TV Show Episodes, or Songs
In “Hills Like White Elephants,” Ernest Hemingway discusses a difficult subject
without ever directly naming it.
In The Mindy Project’s “We Need to Talk about Annette,” writer Mindy Kaling
illustrates that the relationship between a man’s mother and his new girlfriend
can be extremely shaky when character Mindy Lahiri states, _________ (00:21:14
– 00:23:45).
He once expressed his distaste for communism, singing on “Revolution,” from
the self-titled album, The Beatles, “If you go carrying pictures of Chairman Mao,
you’re not gonna make it with anyone anyhow” (Beatles).

16. Citing Song Lyrics
If you cite song lyrics from a CD you listened to, you might
simply refer to the song in your essay:
“You say you got a real solution,” the Beatles sing in
“Revolution 1.”
Otherwise, place the performer or band’s name in
parenthesis:
He once expressed his distaste for communism, singing,
“If you go carrying pictures of Chairman Mao, you’re not
gonna make it with anyone anyhow” (Beatles).

17. Citing TV Shows
In The Mindy Project’s
“We Need to Talk about
Annette,” writer Mindy
Kaling illustrates that
the relationship
between a man’s
mother and his new
girlfriend can be
extremely shaky when
character Mindy Lahiri
states, _________
(00:21:14 – 00:23:45).

18. Citing YouTube
Videos
MLA does not have a
specific recommendation
for YouTube videos, so the
standard is to use the
format for online film or
video. Parenthetical or in
text citation example:
(Shimabukuro, 2006)

19. Quoting Lines of
Poetry/Song
Lyrics
When short (three lines of verse,
or less) quotations from poetry,
mark breaks in short quotations of
verse with a slash, ( / ), at the end
of each line of verse (a space
should precede and follow the
slash). If a stanza break occurs
during the quotation, use a double
slash ( // ).
Cullen concludes, "Of all the things
that happened there / That's all I
remember" (11-12).

20. Quoting Lines of
Poetry/Song
Lyrics
When citing long sections (more than
three lines) of poetry, keep
formatting as close to the original as
possible.
In his poem "My Papa's Waltz,"
Theodore Roethke explores his
childhood with his father:
The whiskey on your breath
Could make a small boy dizzy;
But I hung on like death:
Such waltzing was not easy.
We Romped until the pans
Slid from the kitchen shelf;
My mother's countenance
Could not unfrown itself. (qtd. in
Shrodes, Finestone, Shugrue 202)

21. Block Quotes
For quotations that are more than four lines of prose or three lines of verse, place
quotations in a free-standing block of text and omit quotation marks. Start the
quotation on a new line, with the entire quote indented ½ inch from the left margin;
maintain double-spacing. Your parenthetical citation should come after the closing
punctuation mark.
For example:
Nelly Dean treats Heathcliff poorly and dehumanizes him throughout her narration:
They entirely refused to have it in bed with them, or even in their room, and I
had no more sense, so, I put it on the landing of the stairs, hoping it would be
gone on the morrow. By chance, or else attracted by hearing his voice, it crept
to Mr. Earnshaw's door, and there he found it on quitting his chamber. Inquiries
were made as to how it got there; I was obliged to confess, and in recompense
for my cowardice and inhumanity was sent out of the house. (Bronte 78)

22. AUDIEN
CE

23. ARE YOU INVITING
READERS IN OR ARE
YOU LEAVING THEM
OUT?

24. CONSIDE
R:
• HOW MUCH DO YOU KNOW ABOUT YOUR
AUDIENCE? HOW DO THEY DIFFER FROM YOU?
CONSIDER THEIR BACKGROUND.
• WILL THEY UNDERSTAND YOUR REFERENCES?
• WHAT DOES YOUR AUDIENCE ALREADY KNOW?
DO THEY NEED MORE INFORMATION?

25. from “Emergent Predictors of Hepatitis C
Infection Among Non-Injection Drug Users”
by Sheila a. Teles, et. al.:
• The chi-square test or Fisher’s exact test (two-tailed)
was used for categorical data. For all tests, a p value
<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Logistic
Binary regression analysis was used to determine risk
factors associated with HCV infection. Variables with a
p value ≤0.20 were included in the multivariate
model, adjusted by population. Analyses were
performed with the statistical software SPSS. All
analyses were two-sided.

26. from a pamphlet of frequently asked questions
about Hepatitis C created by the Los Angeles
County Department of Public Health:Who is at risk for hepatitis C?
Anyone can get hepatitis C, but you may be at higher
risk if you:
Were born between 1945-1965
Received donated blood or organs before 1992
Have ever injected drugs with a needle or syringe
Have certain medical conditions like HIV or kidney
disease
Have had sexual contact with an infected partner
Got body piercings or tattoos in informal or

27. Commas
Commas play an extremely important role in ensuring that
your documents are understandable. In fact, failing to insert
a comma in the correct spot can cause considerable
misreading. Beyond a few special circumstances, there are six
basic ways to use commas correctly.

28. Commas
1) To Separate Adjacent Parallel
Elements (What?)
That means listing, as in:
Stretching, warming up, and
cooling down are important to a
good exercise program.
Or:
Although he appears to have your
best interests in mind, he truly is a
competitive, combative,
cantankerous boss.

29. Commas
2) To Join Two or More Independent
Clauses
In most instances, place a comma
between two sentences that are joined
with a coordinating conjunction--and, but,
or, for, nor, so, yet:, as in:
She was not sure if she had the necessary
mathematical abilities to be an engineer,
so she pursued a graduate degree in
history.
Or:
He was surrounded by fifty people, yet he
felt all alone.

30. Commas
3) After Introductory Subordinate
Clauses
As in:
As the shrimp boats trawl, sea grass
can collect on the trap door, allowing
shrimp to escape.
Or:
According to the professor, rich
women are more likely to have
caesarean sections than poor
women.

31. Commas
4) After Conjunctive Adverbs and
Transitional Phrases at the
Beginnings of Sentences
As in:
Nevertheless, we must push
forward with our plans.
Or:
In other words, you're fired. Hey,
I'm just kidding.

32. Commas
5) Around Nonrestrictive Parenthetical Elements
As in:
The lawyers, who have an office downtown, think that
we have no chance of winning.
But not in:
The lawyer who has worked on this case for three years
thinks that we have no chance of winning.

33. Commas
6) Before Nonrestrictive
Adverbial Statements or
Clauses at the Ends of
Sentences
As in:
You should revise the essay, as
I suggested.
But not in:
You should revise the essay as
I suggested.