3. 3
Congress of Vienna-1815
Crimean War
Treaty of Paris-1856
Franco-Prussian War-1870
Triple Alliance 1882
Franco-Russian Alliance 1894
Anglo-German naval arms race 1898–1912
Entente Cordiale 1904
Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905
First Moroccan Crisis 1905–1906
Anglo-Russian Entente 1907
Bosnian crisis 1908–1909
Agadir Crisis 1911
Italo-Turkish War 1911–1912
Balkan Wars 1912–1913
Assassination of Franz Ferdinand 1914
July Crisis 1914
Outline (rough)
5. 5
Colonies in Africa- 1914
There are only two grey areas on
the map. You must ask the
question, “What is going on ?”
France
United Kingdom
Belgium
Spain
Italy
Germany
Portugal
Independent
10. 10
European History
in the
19th Century
Russia, France, and Great Britain
fought for Christian rights in Turkey
But France and Great Britain fought to
keep Russia out of the Ottoman regions.
Great Britain
France
Germany
Russia
Austro-Hungarian Empire
Ottoman Empire
Crimean War
1850’s
11. 11
Immediate Causes
of Crimean War:
Religious Rights-
protection of Christian
minorities in the Holy Land, and
presently in the Ottoman Empire.
Russia: protect Eastern Orthodox Church.
France: protect Roman Catholics.
Long Range Causes:
Expansion of Russian power and control.
Decline of Ottoman Empire.
Resistance to Russian expansion by France
and Great Britain.
Results
The churches came to an
agreement of recognizing
each other’s peaceful
existence.
Results
Britain mediates an agreement which
Nicholas I refuses.
The Ottoman Empire with Britain and
France declare war on Russia 1853.
13. 13
After three years of fighting, and an eleven
month siege by the British and French at
Sevastopol, the Russians sue for peace.
Treaty of Paris 1856
Russia is forbidden from their
war ships entering the Black
Sea or Dardanelles Straits.
The bigger reasons for the war were Napoleon III’s search for prestige.
Inept statesmen and diplomats failed.
Nicholas I’s quest for control of the Black Sea and the Dardanelles Straits.
14. 14
The legacy of the Crimean War:
The putting in place the foundations for creating alliances that
would lead to WW I…..
The iconic painting and the accompanying poem of Alfred Lord
Tennyson, “The Charge of the Light Brigade”……
The work of Florence Nightingale in the nursing of battle wounds....
15. 15
1
Half a league, half a league,
Half a league onward,
All in the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.
"Forward, the Light Brigade!
"Charge for the guns!" he said:
Into the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.
2. "Forward, the Light Brigade!"
Was there a man dismay'd?
Not tho' the soldier knew
Someone had blunder'd:
Theirs not to make reply,
Theirs not to reason why,
Theirs but to do and die:
Into the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.
4. Flash'd all their sabres bare,
Flash'd as they turn'd in air,
Sabring the gunners there,
Charging an army, while
All the world wonder'd:
Plunged in the battery-smoke
Right thro' the line they broke;
Cossack and Russian
Reel'd from the sabre stroke
Shatter'd and sunder'd.
Then they rode back, but not
Not the six hundred.
3. Cannon to right of them,
Cannon to left of them,
Cannon in front of them
Volley'd and thunder'd;
Storm'd at with shot and shell,
Boldly they rode and well,
Into the jaws of Death,
Into the mouth of Hell
Rode the six hundred.
5
5. Cannon to right of them,
Cannon to left of them,
Cannon behind them
Volley'd and thunder'd;
Storm'd at with shot and shell,
While horse and hero fell,
They that had fought so well
Came thro' the jaws of Death
Back from the mouth of Hell,
All that was left of them,
Left of six hundred.
6. When can their glory fade?
O the wild charge they made!
All the world wondered.
Honour the charge they made,
Honour the Light Brigade,
Noble six hundred.
Alfred, Lord Tennyson
16. 16
The results of the Crimean War will factor in the coming
of WWI…..even though 60 years in the future.
Discuss the factors:
Russia:
Ottoman Empire:
France:
Try these and discuss:
Russia: expansion, take from Turkey (Ottomans).
Ottoman Empire: losing control, everyone wants a piece
France Napoleon's desire to rule the world..
18. 18
Bismarck died in 1898, 16 years
before the Great War.
Some would blame Bismarck ‘s
actions and philosophy for
the Great War.
What did he have to do with initiating
a World War?
19. 19
Unable to persuade the southern German
states to join with his North German
Confederation, he provoked hostilities with
France as a way of uniting the German states
together.
21. 21
Franco-Prussian War: 1870-1871
Prussia defeated Napoleon III’s France:
The German states unified.
A united German Empire was formed.
Napoleon III (France).
sought support of Britain,
opposed Russia
A Republic established
France now befriended Russia.
Bismarck/Germany supported Austria
Austria abandoned their alliance
with Russia.
Austria, no longer a power,
allies with Hungary.
France hostile to Germany.
Russia desiring gains in the Balkans.
Austria-Hungary now competing with Russia
for goods of the Ottoman Empire.
Bismarck’s Grand Plan
23. 23
Ottoman Empire continued to weaken throughout the century.
More RESULTS
Netherlands
created.
Prussia
France lost
all its
conquests.
German states
headed for
unification.
Austria gained northern
Italy and Venice.
Russia gained
parts of Poland.
Belgium created out
of Austrian territory
24. 24
World War I: Review questions
1. Crimean War (consider only the war):
a. Religious question: Why was Russia concerned with the
Ottoman Empire?
b. What does the Holy Land have to do with the Crimean War?
c. What reason, other than religious, would Britain have been in conflict
with Russia.
d. The British and French held the Russians at siege, where?
e. The Treaty of Paris 1858 affected the loser, Russia, the most. What
part of the Treaty affected Russia the most?
f. Why did Britain want the Ottoman Empire to be strong?
g. Why did Russia want a weak Ottoman Empire?
2. Franco-Prussian War
a. Who caused the war?
b. Why did Prussia start a war with France?
c. The Treaty that ended the war took what two provinces from France,
giving them to Germany?
d. What was the most important result of the Prussian victory?
e. What one word describes the attitude of France with the ending of
the war?
26. 26
In order to prevent a war of revenge,
Bismarckdecidednowto
isolate Francediplomatically.
The Three Emperors' League with Russia and Austria-Hungary.
The Russian-Turkish War of 1877 judged by Bismarck (Congress of Berlin).
Russia angry about Germany joining with Austria-Hungary (1879).
Bismarck, however, sought to tie Russia to this alliance by reviving the Three Emperors’
League (1881-87) through the Reinsurance Treaty (1887-90).
Bismarck also gained British cooperation.
Are you able to follow?
28. 28
Bismarck -a political genius
Many historians praise him as a visionary who
was instrumental in uniting Germany
and, once that had been done, kept
the peace in Europe through clever
diplomacy.
Wilhelm II preferred vigorous and rapid
expansion to enlarge Germany’s
"place in the sun”.
This expansion will bring Germany into
conflict with the Concert of Europe
and………..with…………….
……….BISMARCK!
29. 29
The bitterness begins: Napoleon III (left) and Bismarck (right) at Sedan during
the tail-end of the Franco-Prussian War
(Painting by Wilhelm Camphausen/Public domain)
In our time-line to WWI it will be France versusGermany
30. 30
Bismarck had built and sustained a
fragile balance of power between
Germany, France, Great Britain, and
Russia.
He is credited, arguably, as the
molder of the peace since 1870.
His only resentment was with the
colonial strength of Great Britain.
It begins with his policies as Chancellor before Wilhelm II became Kaiser.
Russia Britain France Germany
Balance of Power in Europe
33. Relying on Russian support, France intensified its colonial policy.
The alliance with France also facilitated the tsarist government’s
expansion into Manchuria in the 1890s.
By constantly receiving new loans from France, Russian tsarism
gradually fell into financial dependence on French imperialism.
33
34. Otto von Bismarck,
Chancellor of a unified
Germany, 1871.
He brought Prussian
militarism to Germany.
He carefully controlled and
contained within a vibrant
and productive society this
militarism, which became the
impetus for the expansion of
Germany’s empire.
Otto von Bismarck
34
Bismarck worked at
preventing any
coalition.
Germany must not
quarrel with Russia,
Austria, or Great
Britain.
France must be
isolated.
He wants Austria
and Russia at each
other’s throats, thus
driving Austria
towards Germany.
37. German Emperor and King of Prussia,
Kaiser William II
Ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom
of Prussia
1888 to 1918 (Nov 9th).
He was the grandson of British Queen
Victoria and related to many monarchs and
princes of Europe.
37
38. Wilhelm symbolized a new era in
German history.
He had visions of military glory,
delusions of grandeur.
He had the prideful belief that he and
he alone made policy, not his
ministers.
He felt he was the modern
equivalent of the rulers of the
Holy Roman Empire
38
41. Czar Nicholas II
Ruling from 1 November 1894
Married the granddaughter of Queen Victoria,
making him cousins with
William II of Germany
41
The family Romanov
Question: pick out the heir to
the throne of the Romanov
Family.
Alexei
42. 42
Consider the spirit of the European nations:
Yes, the SPIRIT.
For each country they were building their egos, in every event.
Each country was competitive.. The competitive spirit was alive.
No one country was cooperative.
44. To what region does the
“Eastern Question” reference?
a. German states before unification.
b. Turkey and the Ottoman Empire.
c. Russia and her borders with Poland.
d. Middle East: Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Jordan,
and others.
44
45. Two empires coveted the lands
of the Ottoman Empire as it disintegrated.
One empire wanted the Ottoman Empire to be maintained.
Which country wanted them to
remain strong?
a. Great Britain
b. Austria
c. Russia
d. India
45
46. Question #1: Why was Great Britain in
favor of keeping the
Ottoman Empire intact?
a. Great Britain had too much of an
economic interest in Turkey.
b. A buffer between European
nations and their colony in India.
c. Being a friend of Turkey meant
the Suez Canal was always safe.
d. They always took a stand
against Russia, Austria,
and Germany.
Question #2
Russia favored the disintegration of the
Ottoman Empire.
What action against the Ottomans
would symbolize a victory for Russia?
a. Placing a Christian Cross atop
the Turkish mosque Hagia
Sophia.
b. Placing the Russian flag atop
Hagia Sophia Mosque.
c. The execution of the Sultan
of Turkey.
d. The destruction of Hagia
Sophia Mosque.
Question #3
What was the religion of Russia that pitted it
so aggressively against Turkey’s Islam?
a. Muslim b. Catholic c. Orthodox d. atheist
46
47. Russia
India
Areas controlled by
Ottoman Turks
47
The explanation
for the disintegrating
of the Ottoman Empire:
a. The government has no money.
b. Surrounding nations are threatening invasion.
c. Poorly governed by the Sultan.
d. The Sultan is selling off parts of the Empire
for profit.
Question
Great Britain
on behalf of their colony in
India
48. 48
POPULATION
Russians RUS 130,000,000
Poles POL 57,393,000
Ukrainians UKR 57,000,000
Serbs SRB 12,000,000
Czechs CZE 12,000,000
Bulgarians BUL 10,000,000
Belarusians BLR 10,000,000
Croats CRO 8,000,000
Slovaks SVK 6,940,000
Bosniacs BIH 2,800,000
Slovenes SVN 2,500,000
Macedonians MKD 2,200,000
Montenegrins MNE 750,000
49. Summary:
The 1876 Eastern question
The Ottoman Empire is disintegrating.
The Pan-Slav Party of Russia is leading the government to
take lands from the Ottomans, restoring the Russian
Orthodox Church to power in Bulgarian lands of the Balkans.
The Hapsburg family of Austria sees an opportunity to
expand at little expense.
Great Britain wants NO-ONE to hassle the Ottomans.
Germany, Austria, Russia, or even France must not
gain lands from the Ottomans.
That would threaten their(GB) access to the Suez
Canal and India, their valuable colony.
49
51. The Bulgarian Massacre 1878
The Bulgarian population was being
crushed socially and politically under
Ottoman rule.
Rebels had been hoarding arms
and ammunition for some time,
readying for a REVOLT.
The rebels attacked Muslim officials, police,
even citizens.
The rebels were slaughtered.
The Ottoman response was
immediate and severe.
12,000 to 15,000
Bulgarian Christians
were
Massacred
after many horrific brutalities.
War is declared against
the
Ottoman Empire.
By Whom?
a. Austria
b. Russia
c. Germany
d. France
51
55. What was the Queen’s stance on the Russian invasion
of the Ottoman Empire?
a. Total support of the Czar.
b. Total disgust with the Czar.
c. Demanding the two belligerents
negotiate a cease-fire.
d. Not a choice
Queen Victoria, “…those horrid Russians, whose word one cannot believe.”
55
The Queen of England reacts to the war in Bulgaria.
Lord Gladstone – Benjamin Disraeli,
the two leaders in parliament will now make
critical decisions
56. Great Britain
Challenges
Russia
The Czar’s army
surrounds
Constantinople.
Which of the following would be a
concern of the British?
a. Queen Victoria hatred of the Russians
b. Russian expansion to Suez Canal
c. Russian threat towards India.
d. Russian control of the Balkans
Disraeli urged the Cabinet to send
the British fleet through the
Dardanelles to put pressure on the
Russians.
Question:
What was the Russian response?
a. Withdraw from Constantinople.
b. Continue the siege of
Constantinople.
c. Attack Constantinople.
d. Threaten the British
56
Constantinople
57. Britain threatened to send a fleet through the Dardanelles.
Constantinople
Dardanelles
Golden
Horn
Russia countered:
We’ll take Constantinople
if you enter the Bosporus.
Admiral Hornby’s fleet
anchored off the
Golden Horn.
Russia’s reaction?
a. We stay where
we are.
b. We back off.
c. Move fleet face
to face with the
British fleet.
d. Sue for peace.
57
58. Lord Gladstone
Gladstone condemned the Turks.
The Queen raged at him, calling him a “half
mad-man,” and possibly a Russian agent.
Queen Victoria’s Conservative Foreign
Minister-Lord Derby (recall Derby)
strongly opposed war.
Lord Derby
Disraeli
The Queen’s Cabinet debates and argues
58
Lord Salisbury
The Queen supports the Turks and supports war with Russia.
Lord Derby is opposed to war and Gladstone favors the Russians.
SPL IT
59. Admiral Sir Geoffrey Hornby Russian Artillery
British fleet
59
Dardanelles
Bosporus
With his flag on the battleship HMS
Alexandra, in January 1877. Adm.
Hornby forced his way through the
Dardanelles, despite Turkish protests,
in a display of British naval power
intended to deter Russian aggression
during the Russo-Turkish War.
60. Russia takes from
the disintegrating
Ottoman Empire
Constantinople is saved from
destruction.
Russia gains
Bulgaria.
60
The Treaty of San Stefano
Bulgaria
61. 61
The Treaty of San Stefano was signed after the Ottomans (Turkey) lost
the war with Russia.
Russia took too
much!Thus………….Thus
The Congress of
Berlin
…….is needed
62. 62
Now we connect to
“causes of WW I”
The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) is being kicked out of Europe.
Russia wants that area and will fight for it.
Great Britain believes their colony, INDIA, is threatened by Russia.
Great Britain herself is divided as to what to do, ……….. war or not.
We can predict a war between Russia and Great Britain that brings other
interested nations into the fray.
Who is “interested” in this possibility besides Russia,
Great Britain, and Turkey?
a. Bulgaria b. Serbia c. India d. Austria
[Bulgaria, Serbia, and Austria]
63. 63
Review
The Bulgarians, suffering under Ottoman control, rebel, and are massacred.
The Russians intervene, with war against the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).
Russia wins the war.
The Treaty of San Stefano took lands from Turkey to build up Bulgaria.
The Treaty was unfair, allowing Russia to gain lands.
Europe gathered the important nations to the Congress of Berlin (1878)
to fix things.
What’s the big deal? Fear of Russian expansion.
Who controls the Dardanelles?
What is the condition of the Slavs?
What is happening in the Balkans?
65. Congress of Berlin
Settle the questions arising from the conclusion of the Russian-Ottoman
Empire War and the Treaty of San Stefano (Russia and Turkey)
Ottoman Empire, Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy,
Germany, Greece, Serbia, Romania, Montenegro
Attending representatives
65
Anyone
1878
66. Great Britain's representative: Benjamin Disraeli
His Goal
Build a
Balance of
Power
His Goal
Maintain peace
in the Balkans
and weaken
Russia
66
President of the Congress:
Prince Otto
von Bismarck
Germany
67. Conflict in
Constantinople
67
Russia needs to control Constantinople as
a route to southern Russia.
Turkey needed to control Constantinople
because they owned it…already!!!
Great Britain needed Constantinople, or
a friend to control Constantinople,
because they needed
their Indian colony stable.
Great Britain needed to protect their
Empire, Suez and India, and
Constantinople was in a key geographic
position.
69. The Congress of Berlin is signed.:
69
The Congress of Berlin was held to correct the severity of the
Treaty of San Stefano and adjust the old Treaty of Berlin.
70. Russia lost much of Bulgaria
that was part of the Treaty of
San Stefano.
Austria-Hungary obtained Bosnia
and Herzegovina.
Independence obtained by
Romania
Serbia
Montenegro
Turkey
IndependenceRomania
independence
Serbia
Gained territory
but
angered
the Slavs
Austria
Under Russian
control
Bulgaria
DardenellesTurkey still
controls the
Dardanelles
Dardanelles
Turkey is
humiliated,
weakened, sick.
Turkey
Russia humiliated, and
resentful, and lost
much of Bulgaria
Russia
Germany gained allegiance
with Austria but will suffer the
resentment of Russia.
Germany
70
Britain keeps the
Suez and India
safe..
Britain keeps
the Suez and India
safe.
71. The Congress of Berlin, at first, was called a “great achievement in
peacemaking.”
The Congress of Berlin was later proved to have
created dissatisfaction with everyone.
Great Britain: maintained #1 position in Europe; still must protect Suez and India.
Turkey (Ottoman Empire): falling apart.
Germany: #2 in Europe, stronger connection to Austria, still wary of French revenge..
Russia: humiliated after a victorious war against Turkey; loss of parts of Bulgaria.
Austria-Hungary: closer alignment with Germany; fear of pan-Slavism;
have made Russia an enemy..
France: still desiring revenge with Germany; otherwise, not interested in the Balkans.
Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece, Serbia; gaining some independence..
71
also Russia: fear of Britain and Austria coming to Turkey’s aid.
Aware of the need to obtain agreements with Germany.
Serbia continues to agitate inside Austrian lands in hopes of building a
Greater Serbian Nation.
72. Germany repeatedly manipulated the internal affairs of France's neighbors to hurt
France.
Bismarck put heavy pressure on Belgium, Spain, and Italy hoping to obtain the
election of liberal, anticlerical governments.
His plan was to promote republicanism in France by isolating the clerical-
monarchist regime of President MacMahon.
Bismarck and other European leaders opposed the growth of Russian influence
and tried to protect the integrity of the Ottoman Empire (see Eastern Question).
As a result, Russo-German relations further suffered, with the Russian chancellor
Gorchakov denouncing Bismarck for compromising his nation's victory.
The relationship was additionally strained due to Germany's protectionist trade
policies.
Some in the German military clamored for a preemptive war with Russia, but Bismarck
said that "Preemptive war is like committing suicide for fear of death."
72
74. A most
trivial of trivial
facts:
The 15th Earl of Derby,
Edward Stanley, is the
father of Lord Stanley,
the namesake of the
NHL’s Stanley Cup.
Lord Derby, in an attempt to avoid war, met privately with the
Russian ambassador. He shared some state secrets and the public
found him out. The Cabinet was in chaos.
Lord Derby’s Fall
Lord Derby threatened to quit over
his disagreement with the Queen.
74
Recall Lord Derby’s objection to war
with Russia, disagreeing with his
Queen. What could have happened if
Derby had played it straight?
75. Disraeli’s Troubles:
How to hold back the Russians.
How to placate the Queen.
How to persuade Lord Derby to stay
on and not resign.
How to deal with a drunken Lord Derby.
Earl of Beaconsfield-
Benjamin Disraeli
Lord Derby
75
Insight: why is Lord Derby of
importance to the presentation?
If you review the slides that contain info
on Lord Derby you will see that he was
against war and was “fired.”
He could have made a difference.
76. Germany
Austria
To prevent wars….to limit wars.
They will support each other if attacked by Russia.
They will remain neutral if attacked by France.
Germany could not be isolated 76
78. 78
1897: German Foreign Secretary Bernhard von Bülow
Germany abandons Bismarck-era policy of balance of power and
desires to challenge world order and claim itself as a
world power.
Britain and Germany will now forever be enemies unable to form any
alliance.
81. Following the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 was………
German Empire strengthens
Triple Alliance 1882
Tensions between
France & Germany
Tensions between
Russia & Germany
Russia and France share the same strategic
threat from Germany.
Financial and economic interests
between France and Russia
blossoming.
81
Question: after rereading the list which two
countries should ally?
82. Russia is expanding into Asia.
British markets in China are threatened.
British sea power alone could not counter the threat.
British reasoning:
Germany shares a border with Russia and could put pressure on them.
Therefore,
Britain must get an alliance with Germany.
But
IF Britain allied with Germany then France would ally with Russia (joining the Triple Alliance
to become the Quadruple Alliance.
Germany, the dominant military power on European soil, would then be the ruling power
over Europe with Britain deferring to Berlin on all future issues.
Britain must get an alliance with Germany.
82
83. 83
The previous three pages must be understood.
Please review those pages.
If you understand …………….then………..
how is that possible?
I’m impressed.
IF Britain allied with Germany then
France would ally with Russia
Germany would then be the ruling power over Europe
with Britain deferring to Berlin on all future issues.
84. The deterioration of Russo-German relations, the resurrection of the Triple Alliance in
1891, and the rumors that Great Britain would join the alliance laid the groundwork for
the conclusion of a political agreement between Russia and France.
84
87. The English granted Transvaal and the Orange Free State
independence in1854.
1877 England reversed its decision and annexed Transvaal.
The Boers revolted three years later.
1886 Huge reefs of gold
ore discovered in
Johannesburg, Transvaal.
Prospectors and
workers flocked into
Johannesburg,
including
15,000 Germans.
87
88. The Jameson Raid
British forces under the command of Leander Jameson tried to take the city of
Johannesburg---------- failed; recognized as a fiasco.
Jameson was captured.
88
89. The Brits were enraged when the
telegram was discovered.
Kaiser Wilhelm sent a telegram congratulating
President Kruger on their success. He alluded
to potential support by Germany in future
endeavors.
The
Kruger
Telegram
89
90. 90
World opinion was against Great Britain
for their bullying action in the Boer War.
91. The British reaction to his telegram to President
Kruger of Transvaal:
Lord Salisbury (GB) let it be known that Germany has no rights or
power in the ongoing conflict between the Boers and Great Britain.
91
93. Queen Victoria
Kaiser Wilhelm II
The
grandson
Dear Grandson (paraphrased)
…your telegram to President Kruger has caused
me much pain and astonishment. Very unfriendly
to us….these newspaper wars often tend to
provoke war, which would be too awful.
Always your very affectionate grandmother,
V.R.I.
93
94. Queen Victoria
Kaiser Wilhelm II
The
grandson
Most beloved Grandmama: (paraphrased)
Never was the Telegram intended as a step against England or
your government, but [Jameson], in a most unprecedented
manner, went and surprised a neighboring country in deep
peace. Your government made clear that the men were acting
in open disobedience to your orders, they were rebels….I was
standing for law and order. There was nothing hostile in my
actions or motives.
Your most dutiful and devoted Grandson, William I.R.
94
95. The fiasco of the British, the
failed Jameson Raid of 1895
had resulted in:
• Jameson and others
convicted in British
courts.
• The Transvaal and the
Orange Free State would
receive millions in
indemnities.
• The Krueger Letter sent
by Wilhelm II, created
anger in Britain towards
Germany (and vice-
versa).• Prime Minister
Kruger began to
prepare for war. 95
Meanwhile
the Boer War
had been
accelerating.
96. The Boer cavalry entered the Cape
Colony and besieged the cities of
Kimberley, Mafeking, and
Ladysmith.
Europe celebrated the British
losses.
The Boer cavalry entered the Cape
Colony and besieged the cities of
Kimberley, Mafeking, and
Ladysmith.
Europe celebrated the British
losses.
Great Britain had fought bravely for and lost the whole of North
America against France and the Rebels, and yet has become the greatest Power in the world!
HOW?
Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener led the British back from early defeats
to where they were able to take back all the besieged towns and moved
into The Transvaal, taking Pretoria, and Johannesburg.
96
q/a the first image; observe closely; the religious point; the muskets, rifled? Did they have rifeld muskets in the Crimean war. Observe the youth at center screen.
