Coal and petroleum are related in their origin from plant matter, but differ in their state and environment of deposition. Both undergo geological processes that change their composition over time through coalification and kerogen formation. Coals can serve as a source rock for natural gas and, depending on their composition and maturity, may generate oil as well. Key indicators of coal rank and maturity include moisture, volatile content, carbon content, and vitrinite reflectance measured microscopically.
This document discusses the origin and formation of oil and gas from plankton and other microscopic organisms. It explains that under low oxygen conditions on the seafloor, organic matter accumulates and is buried over time. Increased temperature and pressure converts the organic matter into kerogen and then into oil and gas. The hydrocarbons can then migrate from the source rock through porous carrier rocks until being trapped by an impermeable cap rock, forming an oil or gas reservoir. Sweet crude oil contains low sulfur while sour crude has higher sulfur levels, affecting refining.
Kerogen is composed of the insoluble organic matter in sedimentary rocks that is capable of generating petroleum. It is formed from the decomposed remains of organisms like bacteria, algae, and plants. Kerogen is classified into four main types - Type I kerogen forms from algal matter and yields large amounts of oil; Type II kerogen is a mix of marine and terrestrial organic matter and is the most prolific source; Type III kerogen derives from woody plant debris and yields more gas; Type IV kerogen is highly carbonaceous but incapable of generating petroleum. The composition and source of the organic matter determines the type of kerogen formed and ultimately influences the hydrocarbon products generated during maturation.
Contains a short description of source rock and it is classified whilst making due diligence to relate it to its importance to geologist (or economic importance in general)
The document discusses various topics related to coal formation including the stages and periods of coal formation, theories of coal seam origin, rank and grading of coal, minerals found in coal, and microscopic constituents of coal. It provides information on the fuel ratio classification systems of Frazer and Campbell and defines the four main types of kerogen - Type I, II, III, and IV - which are distinguished by their composition, origin, hydrogen content, and main products expelled during peak maturity.
This presentation discusses petroleum traps, which are subsurface reservoirs that prevent petroleum from migrating. There are three main types of traps - structural, stratigraphic, and combination. Structural traps are created by folding or faulting of reservoir rocks. Stratigraphic traps result from variations in rock layers. Combination traps involve both structural and stratigraphic elements, like salt domes. For petroleum to accumulate, a trap must form before or during migration from the source rock. The timing of trap formation is important for a reservoir to contain producible quantities of oil or gas.
Coal can be classified in several ways based on different parameters. Some common classification systems include:
1. Visual classification based on color, structure into categories like lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite.
2. Proximate analysis classification using parameters like fixed carbon, volatile matter, and fuel ratio to categorize into types.
3. Ultimate analysis classification systems like Regnault-Grüner-Brosquet and Seyler's that classify based on carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen content.
4. National and international standards that use parameters like volatile matter, ash content, calorific value to systematically grade and code different coal types.
Coal forms from the accumulation and compression of plant materials over millions of years. It ranges in composition from 60-90% carbon. There are four main types - peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite - representing increasing stages of coalification. Peat forms from partial decomposition of plant matter in swamps. Lignite and bituminous coal contain more compressed plant tissue with higher carbon content. Anthracite is almost pure carbon. Coal is an important fuel used worldwide to generate electricity and power industry through combustion and coking.
"Granites" Classification, Petrogenesis and Tectonic DescriminationSamir Kumar Barik
This document discusses the classification, petrogenesis, and tectonic discrimination of granites. It begins with definitions of granite and descriptions of its typical mineralogical and textural characteristics. It then outlines several common classification schemes for granites based on mineralogy, chemistry, and tectonic setting. These include QAPF, alumina saturation, S-I-A-M, and discriminations based on plate tectonic setting. The document also discusses models for the petrogenesis of granites involving magmatic differentiation and metasomatic processes. Geochemical discrimination diagrams are presented and the multiple possible origins of granites are noted. Future work on the geochemistry and uranium mineralization of granites in specific
This document discusses the origin and formation of oil and gas from plankton and other microscopic organisms. It explains that under low oxygen conditions on the seafloor, organic matter accumulates and is buried over time. Increased temperature and pressure converts the organic matter into kerogen and then into oil and gas. The hydrocarbons can then migrate from the source rock through porous carrier rocks until being trapped by an impermeable cap rock, forming an oil or gas reservoir. Sweet crude oil contains low sulfur while sour crude has higher sulfur levels, affecting refining.
Kerogen is composed of the insoluble organic matter in sedimentary rocks that is capable of generating petroleum. It is formed from the decomposed remains of organisms like bacteria, algae, and plants. Kerogen is classified into four main types - Type I kerogen forms from algal matter and yields large amounts of oil; Type II kerogen is a mix of marine and terrestrial organic matter and is the most prolific source; Type III kerogen derives from woody plant debris and yields more gas; Type IV kerogen is highly carbonaceous but incapable of generating petroleum. The composition and source of the organic matter determines the type of kerogen formed and ultimately influences the hydrocarbon products generated during maturation.
Contains a short description of source rock and it is classified whilst making due diligence to relate it to its importance to geologist (or economic importance in general)
The document discusses various topics related to coal formation including the stages and periods of coal formation, theories of coal seam origin, rank and grading of coal, minerals found in coal, and microscopic constituents of coal. It provides information on the fuel ratio classification systems of Frazer and Campbell and defines the four main types of kerogen - Type I, II, III, and IV - which are distinguished by their composition, origin, hydrogen content, and main products expelled during peak maturity.
This presentation discusses petroleum traps, which are subsurface reservoirs that prevent petroleum from migrating. There are three main types of traps - structural, stratigraphic, and combination. Structural traps are created by folding or faulting of reservoir rocks. Stratigraphic traps result from variations in rock layers. Combination traps involve both structural and stratigraphic elements, like salt domes. For petroleum to accumulate, a trap must form before or during migration from the source rock. The timing of trap formation is important for a reservoir to contain producible quantities of oil or gas.
Coal can be classified in several ways based on different parameters. Some common classification systems include:
1. Visual classification based on color, structure into categories like lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite.
2. Proximate analysis classification using parameters like fixed carbon, volatile matter, and fuel ratio to categorize into types.
3. Ultimate analysis classification systems like Regnault-Grüner-Brosquet and Seyler's that classify based on carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen content.
4. National and international standards that use parameters like volatile matter, ash content, calorific value to systematically grade and code different coal types.
Coal forms from the accumulation and compression of plant materials over millions of years. It ranges in composition from 60-90% carbon. There are four main types - peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite - representing increasing stages of coalification. Peat forms from partial decomposition of plant matter in swamps. Lignite and bituminous coal contain more compressed plant tissue with higher carbon content. Anthracite is almost pure carbon. Coal is an important fuel used worldwide to generate electricity and power industry through combustion and coking.
"Granites" Classification, Petrogenesis and Tectonic DescriminationSamir Kumar Barik
This document discusses the classification, petrogenesis, and tectonic discrimination of granites. It begins with definitions of granite and descriptions of its typical mineralogical and textural characteristics. It then outlines several common classification schemes for granites based on mineralogy, chemistry, and tectonic setting. These include QAPF, alumina saturation, S-I-A-M, and discriminations based on plate tectonic setting. The document also discusses models for the petrogenesis of granites involving magmatic differentiation and metasomatic processes. Geochemical discrimination diagrams are presented and the multiple possible origins of granites are noted. Future work on the geochemistry and uranium mineralization of granites in specific
This document discusses coal rank, grade, and type. It provides definitions and classifications for these coal properties.
Coal rank refers to the degree of coalification or thermal maturation of coal, ranging from lignite to anthracite. Coal grade is based on purity and ash content. Coal type is distinguished by the type of plant materials that formed the coal. These properties are independent but can vary spatially. Coal is first classified by rank to determine its utilization. Rank is determined through parameters like carbon content, energy value, and maceral composition that change with the coalification process. Coal plies form a basis for sampling and correlation within a coal seam based on variations in lithotype or partings.
Coal liquefaction is a process that converts coal into liquid fuels like diesel or gasoline. There are two main types of coal liquefaction: direct and indirect. Direct liquefaction involves partially refining coal directly into synthetic crude oil, while indirect liquefaction first gasifies coal into syngas and then converts the syngas into liquid fuels using processes like Fischer-Tropsch or the Bergius process. Major countries investing in coal liquefaction include China, South Africa, and Australia. It offers benefits like energy security but also faces challenges of high costs and potential environmental impacts.
India is the 4th largest producer of manganese ore in the world, with Karnataka and Orissa having some of the largest deposits. Manganese ore occurs in various forms like massive, columnar, fibrous, botryoidal, and granular deposits. It is an important raw material used in steel production and also has various other industrial applications. The key manganese ore producing states in India are Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh, which have deposits of different types including residual, sedimentary, hydrothermal, and metamorphosed ores.
The document discusses the origin, composition, and types of organic matter found in sediments and rocks. It describes how organic matter originates from organisms and is preserved in anoxic environments. The main types of organic matter discussed are kerogen and bitumen. Kerogen makes up the majority of sedimentary organic matter and has varying potential to generate hydrocarbons upon heating. Bitumen represents the soluble fraction and includes compounds such as asphaltenes and maltens. The document also introduces different types of kerogen that vary in their composition and hydrocarbon generating ability.
This document provides information on various solid fuels including wood, charcoal, peat, and coal. It discusses their origins, compositions, characteristics, and significance. Wood is a domestic fuel that is commonly used in tropical countries and consists mainly of cellulose and lignin. Charcoal is superior to wood and is produced through carbonization or heating wood in the absence of air. Peat represents an early stage in coal formation and varies in composition. Coal is a combustible sedimentary rock formed from the partial decay and burial of plant materials over millions of years. The rank of coals ranges from peat to lignite to anthracite as they gain carbon content and heat value over time. Analysis of coal involves determining its moisture,
This document discusses the key attributes of source rocks: organic richness, kerogen type, and thermal maturity. Organic richness and kerogen type are determined by depositional environment, while thermal maturity depends on tectonic history. Source rocks must contain sufficient organic carbon (>0.5-1% TOC) and be thermally mature to generate hydrocarbons. Kerogen types I-III generate oil, wet gas, and dry gas respectively. Thermal maturity is assessed using indices like Tmax, S1/S2, and spore color. The samples discussed are immature based on their thermal maturity parameters.
Geochemical methods in mineral explorationPramoda Raj
This document discusses geochemical methods for mineral exploration. It covers general principles of geochemistry as they relate to mineral deposits. It also discusses optimizing exploration through proper planning, selection of areas and methods, and organization of field, lab, and supervisory operations. Geochemistry is described as an essential component of modern integrated exploration programs due to the low-grade, large-tonnage nature of most economic deposits and its effectiveness in weathered tropical environments.
Methods of prospecting for oil and gas in fuel geologyThomas Chinnappan
This document discusses various methods used for prospecting oil and gas, including geological, geophysical, aerial and drilling techniques. Geological methods involve surface mapping and analyzing data from exploratory wells. Geophysical techniques encompass gravimetric, magnetic, and seismic surveys to detect underground structures. Prospective drilling involves extracting core samples from test wells to identify potential oil and gas reserves. Together, these prospecting methods are used to identify favorable conditions for oil and gas accumulation and inform decisions about exploration and extraction.
COAL MICROLITHOTYPES AND THEIR USAGE IN INTERPRETING DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTOlusegun Ayobami Olatinpo
This document discusses coal microlithotypes and how their analysis can be used to interpret depositional environments. It defines microlithotypes as natural rock associations found within coal that are differentiated based on maceral percentages. Specific microlithotypes form from different plant communities and depositional conditions. Analyzing the microlithotype composition of coal samples can provide insights into the swamp environment where peat formed, such as forested, reed, or open water settings. This information is valuable for geological research and coal quality evaluation.
This technical paper provides an overview of the major sedimentary basins in India that contain hydrocarbon reserves. It divides the basins into four categories based on the status of hydrocarbon exploration and production. The key basins discussed in detail include the Assam Shelf Basin, Cambay Basin, Bombay Offshore Basin, and Krishna-Godavari Basin. For each basin, it summarizes the geological setting, stratigraphy, hydrocarbon source rocks and reservoir rocks. The paper provides a high-level technical summary of India's major sedimentary basins with proven oil and gas reserves.
COAL BED METHANE (CBM); Coal Seam Gas (CSG), or Coal-mine Methane (CMM); What and why CBM?; How do we estimate the amount of methane gas which will come from a region underlain by coal? ; Benefits of CBM ; Coal seams as aquifers; CBM product water ; What is saline water and why is it considered saline?; What is sodic water and why is it considered sodic? ; Irrigation of crops with CBM water; Current management practices for disposal of CBM product water
The document discusses coal bed methane (CBM), which is a gas that occurs in association with coal. CBM is stored in the micropores and fractures of coal. When the water pressure surrounding coal beds is reduced, the methane is able to desorb from the coal and flow to the wells. CBM production involves drilling wells into coal seams and pumping out water to lower pressure and release the trapped methane gas. While CBM is a potential energy source, its extraction can impact local water resources and ecosystems through water withdrawal and produced water management.
The document summarizes the various processes of formation of ore deposits, which are grouped into three main types: magmatic, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Magmatic processes include magmatic concentration, hydrothermal processes, and sublimation. Sedimentary processes include sedimentary deposits, oxidation and supergene enrichment, residual and mechanical concentration, volcanogenic deposits, evaporation, and bacteriogenic processes. The key magmatic and sedimentary processes are described in further detail.
The document provides an overview of underground coal gasification (UCG). UCG involves injecting oxidants into unmined coal seams to convert coal into syngas. It has several benefits over traditional coal mining such as lower costs, reduced environmental impact, and leaving solid waste underground. However, it also faces challenges from geological and hydrological risks. Recent interest in UCG has grown due to high fuel prices and projects exist in countries like China, India, South Africa, and Australia to test and develop the technology.
This document discusses different types of organic matter found in sediments and sedimentary rocks, including kerogen. It describes four main types of kerogen (Types I-IV) which are distinguished based on their chemical properties and hydrogen content. Type I kerogen is the most oil-prone and is typically found in marine depositional environments, while Type III is more gas-prone and found in terrestrial environments. The quality of a source rock depends on the type of kerogen present, with Type I being the highest quality. Kerogen maturity is determined by temperature and time, and vitrinite reflectance is used to measure the level of organic maturity. Macerals are microscopic organic components in coal that are classified into groups including li
Coal bed methane is natural gas formed during the coalification process and stored in coal seams. It is held in place by water pressure. CBM exploration involves mapping coal seams to determine their extent, thickness, permeability and gas content. Drilling uses mud circulation to remove cuttings and install casing for stability. Production involves hydraulic fracturing to increase permeability followed by dewatering to reduce water pressure and release the gas. Major CBM resources are found in Russia, China, the US, Australia and Canada while India has an estimated 1 TCM of reserves. Uses of CBM include fuel, electricity generation and supporting mine operations.
1) Ore deposits can form from the crystallization of magma in magma chambers (magmatic segregation deposits). Some major examples include deposits associated with layered igneous intrusions like the Bushveld Complex in South Africa, the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe, and the Sudbury Igneous Complex in Canada.
2) Skarn deposits form at the contact between intrusive igneous rocks and carbonate country rocks, where the carbonates are metamorphosed into marble, hornfels, and skarn minerals. Skarn deposits are a source for metals like copper, iron, tungsten, lead, and zinc.
3) Porphyry deposits are associated with porphy
How can minerals deposits be formed; GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES; Ore Fluids; Ore Forming Processes; Concentrating Processes; Magmatic mineral deposits; Residual mineral deposits ; Placer deposits; Sedimentary mineral deposits; Metamorhogenic mineral deposits; Hydrothermal mineral deposits ; Magmatic Deposits
Cumulate deposits: fractional crystallization processes can concentrate metals (Cr, Fe, PGE, Pt, Ni, Ti, Diamond ))
Pegmatites : late staged crystallization forms pegmatites and many residual elements are concentrated (Li, Ce, Be, Sn, U, Rare Earths (REE), Feldspar, Mica, Gems).
magmatic deposits; Mode of Formation of Magmatic Ores Deposits; Mode of Formation of Orthomagmatic Ores ; Fractional Crystallization (or Crystal fractionation ); Magmatic (or Liquid ) Immiscibility; Simple crystallization without concentration (Dissemination); Segregation of early formed crystals; (Layer Types); Injection of material concentrated elsewhere by differentiation Residual liquid segregation; Residual liquid injection; Immiscible liquid segregation; Immiscible-liquid-injection; Early magmatic deposit; Late magmatic deposit; Types of Magmatic Ore Deposits:Chromite; Fe-Ti (± V) oxides; Ni – Cu – Fe (± Pt) sulfides; Platinum Group Elements (PGEs); REE, and Zr in Carbonatites; Diamond in kimberlites.
Alkaline magmatic rocks are igneous rocks that contain more alkalis (Na2O + K2O) than feldspars alone can accommodate. They commonly contain feldspathoids like nepheline, sodalite, or leucite. Examples include phonolites, nepheline syenites, and basanites. Alkaline rocks can be classified based on their silica and alumina content relative to alkalis. The most silica-undersaturated alkaline rocks are carbonatites. Debate occurred over whether carbonatites had an igneous or replacement origin, but experimental evidence and observations of carbonate lavas support a magmatic origin.
This document provides information about fossil fuels, their formation, types, and environmental impacts. It discusses:
- Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas are formed from the remains of ancient organisms over millions of years.
- Coal forms from partially decayed remains of plants that fell into swamps hundreds of millions of years ago and were subjected to heat and pressure over time.
- There are various types of coal classified by their carbon content and other properties, including lignite, bituminous, and anthracite.
- Coal is a widely used fuel but mining and use have environmental impacts like acid mine drainage, subsidence, and greenhouse gas emissions.
This document discusses coal rank, grade, and type. It provides definitions and classifications for these coal properties.
Coal rank refers to the degree of coalification or thermal maturation of coal, ranging from lignite to anthracite. Coal grade is based on purity and ash content. Coal type is distinguished by the type of plant materials that formed the coal. These properties are independent but can vary spatially. Coal is first classified by rank to determine its utilization. Rank is determined through parameters like carbon content, energy value, and maceral composition that change with the coalification process. Coal plies form a basis for sampling and correlation within a coal seam based on variations in lithotype or partings.
Coal liquefaction is a process that converts coal into liquid fuels like diesel or gasoline. There are two main types of coal liquefaction: direct and indirect. Direct liquefaction involves partially refining coal directly into synthetic crude oil, while indirect liquefaction first gasifies coal into syngas and then converts the syngas into liquid fuels using processes like Fischer-Tropsch or the Bergius process. Major countries investing in coal liquefaction include China, South Africa, and Australia. It offers benefits like energy security but also faces challenges of high costs and potential environmental impacts.
India is the 4th largest producer of manganese ore in the world, with Karnataka and Orissa having some of the largest deposits. Manganese ore occurs in various forms like massive, columnar, fibrous, botryoidal, and granular deposits. It is an important raw material used in steel production and also has various other industrial applications. The key manganese ore producing states in India are Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh, which have deposits of different types including residual, sedimentary, hydrothermal, and metamorphosed ores.
The document discusses the origin, composition, and types of organic matter found in sediments and rocks. It describes how organic matter originates from organisms and is preserved in anoxic environments. The main types of organic matter discussed are kerogen and bitumen. Kerogen makes up the majority of sedimentary organic matter and has varying potential to generate hydrocarbons upon heating. Bitumen represents the soluble fraction and includes compounds such as asphaltenes and maltens. The document also introduces different types of kerogen that vary in their composition and hydrocarbon generating ability.
This document provides information on various solid fuels including wood, charcoal, peat, and coal. It discusses their origins, compositions, characteristics, and significance. Wood is a domestic fuel that is commonly used in tropical countries and consists mainly of cellulose and lignin. Charcoal is superior to wood and is produced through carbonization or heating wood in the absence of air. Peat represents an early stage in coal formation and varies in composition. Coal is a combustible sedimentary rock formed from the partial decay and burial of plant materials over millions of years. The rank of coals ranges from peat to lignite to anthracite as they gain carbon content and heat value over time. Analysis of coal involves determining its moisture,
This document discusses the key attributes of source rocks: organic richness, kerogen type, and thermal maturity. Organic richness and kerogen type are determined by depositional environment, while thermal maturity depends on tectonic history. Source rocks must contain sufficient organic carbon (>0.5-1% TOC) and be thermally mature to generate hydrocarbons. Kerogen types I-III generate oil, wet gas, and dry gas respectively. Thermal maturity is assessed using indices like Tmax, S1/S2, and spore color. The samples discussed are immature based on their thermal maturity parameters.
Geochemical methods in mineral explorationPramoda Raj
This document discusses geochemical methods for mineral exploration. It covers general principles of geochemistry as they relate to mineral deposits. It also discusses optimizing exploration through proper planning, selection of areas and methods, and organization of field, lab, and supervisory operations. Geochemistry is described as an essential component of modern integrated exploration programs due to the low-grade, large-tonnage nature of most economic deposits and its effectiveness in weathered tropical environments.
Methods of prospecting for oil and gas in fuel geologyThomas Chinnappan
This document discusses various methods used for prospecting oil and gas, including geological, geophysical, aerial and drilling techniques. Geological methods involve surface mapping and analyzing data from exploratory wells. Geophysical techniques encompass gravimetric, magnetic, and seismic surveys to detect underground structures. Prospective drilling involves extracting core samples from test wells to identify potential oil and gas reserves. Together, these prospecting methods are used to identify favorable conditions for oil and gas accumulation and inform decisions about exploration and extraction.
COAL MICROLITHOTYPES AND THEIR USAGE IN INTERPRETING DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTOlusegun Ayobami Olatinpo
This document discusses coal microlithotypes and how their analysis can be used to interpret depositional environments. It defines microlithotypes as natural rock associations found within coal that are differentiated based on maceral percentages. Specific microlithotypes form from different plant communities and depositional conditions. Analyzing the microlithotype composition of coal samples can provide insights into the swamp environment where peat formed, such as forested, reed, or open water settings. This information is valuable for geological research and coal quality evaluation.
This technical paper provides an overview of the major sedimentary basins in India that contain hydrocarbon reserves. It divides the basins into four categories based on the status of hydrocarbon exploration and production. The key basins discussed in detail include the Assam Shelf Basin, Cambay Basin, Bombay Offshore Basin, and Krishna-Godavari Basin. For each basin, it summarizes the geological setting, stratigraphy, hydrocarbon source rocks and reservoir rocks. The paper provides a high-level technical summary of India's major sedimentary basins with proven oil and gas reserves.
COAL BED METHANE (CBM); Coal Seam Gas (CSG), or Coal-mine Methane (CMM); What and why CBM?; How do we estimate the amount of methane gas which will come from a region underlain by coal? ; Benefits of CBM ; Coal seams as aquifers; CBM product water ; What is saline water and why is it considered saline?; What is sodic water and why is it considered sodic? ; Irrigation of crops with CBM water; Current management practices for disposal of CBM product water
The document discusses coal bed methane (CBM), which is a gas that occurs in association with coal. CBM is stored in the micropores and fractures of coal. When the water pressure surrounding coal beds is reduced, the methane is able to desorb from the coal and flow to the wells. CBM production involves drilling wells into coal seams and pumping out water to lower pressure and release the trapped methane gas. While CBM is a potential energy source, its extraction can impact local water resources and ecosystems through water withdrawal and produced water management.
The document summarizes the various processes of formation of ore deposits, which are grouped into three main types: magmatic, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Magmatic processes include magmatic concentration, hydrothermal processes, and sublimation. Sedimentary processes include sedimentary deposits, oxidation and supergene enrichment, residual and mechanical concentration, volcanogenic deposits, evaporation, and bacteriogenic processes. The key magmatic and sedimentary processes are described in further detail.
The document provides an overview of underground coal gasification (UCG). UCG involves injecting oxidants into unmined coal seams to convert coal into syngas. It has several benefits over traditional coal mining such as lower costs, reduced environmental impact, and leaving solid waste underground. However, it also faces challenges from geological and hydrological risks. Recent interest in UCG has grown due to high fuel prices and projects exist in countries like China, India, South Africa, and Australia to test and develop the technology.
This document discusses different types of organic matter found in sediments and sedimentary rocks, including kerogen. It describes four main types of kerogen (Types I-IV) which are distinguished based on their chemical properties and hydrogen content. Type I kerogen is the most oil-prone and is typically found in marine depositional environments, while Type III is more gas-prone and found in terrestrial environments. The quality of a source rock depends on the type of kerogen present, with Type I being the highest quality. Kerogen maturity is determined by temperature and time, and vitrinite reflectance is used to measure the level of organic maturity. Macerals are microscopic organic components in coal that are classified into groups including li
Coal bed methane is natural gas formed during the coalification process and stored in coal seams. It is held in place by water pressure. CBM exploration involves mapping coal seams to determine their extent, thickness, permeability and gas content. Drilling uses mud circulation to remove cuttings and install casing for stability. Production involves hydraulic fracturing to increase permeability followed by dewatering to reduce water pressure and release the gas. Major CBM resources are found in Russia, China, the US, Australia and Canada while India has an estimated 1 TCM of reserves. Uses of CBM include fuel, electricity generation and supporting mine operations.
1) Ore deposits can form from the crystallization of magma in magma chambers (magmatic segregation deposits). Some major examples include deposits associated with layered igneous intrusions like the Bushveld Complex in South Africa, the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe, and the Sudbury Igneous Complex in Canada.
2) Skarn deposits form at the contact between intrusive igneous rocks and carbonate country rocks, where the carbonates are metamorphosed into marble, hornfels, and skarn minerals. Skarn deposits are a source for metals like copper, iron, tungsten, lead, and zinc.
3) Porphyry deposits are associated with porphy
How can minerals deposits be formed; GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES; Ore Fluids; Ore Forming Processes; Concentrating Processes; Magmatic mineral deposits; Residual mineral deposits ; Placer deposits; Sedimentary mineral deposits; Metamorhogenic mineral deposits; Hydrothermal mineral deposits ; Magmatic Deposits
Cumulate deposits: fractional crystallization processes can concentrate metals (Cr, Fe, PGE, Pt, Ni, Ti, Diamond ))
Pegmatites : late staged crystallization forms pegmatites and many residual elements are concentrated (Li, Ce, Be, Sn, U, Rare Earths (REE), Feldspar, Mica, Gems).
magmatic deposits; Mode of Formation of Magmatic Ores Deposits; Mode of Formation of Orthomagmatic Ores ; Fractional Crystallization (or Crystal fractionation ); Magmatic (or Liquid ) Immiscibility; Simple crystallization without concentration (Dissemination); Segregation of early formed crystals; (Layer Types); Injection of material concentrated elsewhere by differentiation Residual liquid segregation; Residual liquid injection; Immiscible liquid segregation; Immiscible-liquid-injection; Early magmatic deposit; Late magmatic deposit; Types of Magmatic Ore Deposits:Chromite; Fe-Ti (± V) oxides; Ni – Cu – Fe (± Pt) sulfides; Platinum Group Elements (PGEs); REE, and Zr in Carbonatites; Diamond in kimberlites.
Alkaline magmatic rocks are igneous rocks that contain more alkalis (Na2O + K2O) than feldspars alone can accommodate. They commonly contain feldspathoids like nepheline, sodalite, or leucite. Examples include phonolites, nepheline syenites, and basanites. Alkaline rocks can be classified based on their silica and alumina content relative to alkalis. The most silica-undersaturated alkaline rocks are carbonatites. Debate occurred over whether carbonatites had an igneous or replacement origin, but experimental evidence and observations of carbonate lavas support a magmatic origin.
This document provides information about fossil fuels, their formation, types, and environmental impacts. It discusses:
- Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas are formed from the remains of ancient organisms over millions of years.
- Coal forms from partially decayed remains of plants that fell into swamps hundreds of millions of years ago and were subjected to heat and pressure over time.
- There are various types of coal classified by their carbon content and other properties, including lignite, bituminous, and anthracite.
- Coal is a widely used fuel but mining and use have environmental impacts like acid mine drainage, subsidence, and greenhouse gas emissions.
transformation of organic matter into kerogen.pptxRonitKumam
- Petroleum is formed from the remains of ancient organisms that are transformed into kerogen and eventually hydrocarbons through geological processes over millions of years.
- Key factors that influence petroleum formation include the type and amount of organic matter deposited, the environmental conditions that allow for preservation of organic matter, and the rate and depth of burial which determines the temperature and pressure the organic matter experiences.
- As organic matter is buried deeper in sediments, the increasing heat and pressure causes kerogen to crack and thermally degrade first into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons through catagenesis. Further heating in metagenesis converts more kerogen into methane and a carbon residue.
Rock Eval pyrolysis is a tool used to characterize hydrocarbon potential in source and reservoir rocks. It analyzes the quantity and type of organic matter and hydrocarbons present. Through heating rock samples and measuring the released hydrocarbons, parameters such as total organic carbon, S1, S2, S3, hydrogen index, and Tmax are obtained. These values can be used to classify the type of kerogen and determine the thermal maturity and hydrocarbon generating potential of the rock. Contamination from drilling mud must be considered, as additives can affect the test results.
Coal forms over millions of years from plant remains that are buried, compacted, and chemically altered by heat and pressure. The formation involves initial accumulation of plant matter in swamps to form peat deposits, followed by deeper burial which causes compaction and heating that transforms the peat into lignite and then into higher rank coals like bituminous coal and anthracite as the temperature and pressure increase further. Coal provides a major source of the world's energy due to its abundance compared to oil and gas reserves, though it also produces more carbon emissions when burned.
Classification of sedimentary rock- Allochthonous sediments.pdfAasishGiri
The document discusses the classification of sedimentary rocks. It defines allochthonous sediments as terrigenous and pyroclastic sediments that have been transported to the depositional environment, while autochthonous sediments form in situ. Allochthonous sediments can be classified based on grain size, mineral composition, and degree of maturity. Mudrocks and sandstones are discussed in more detail, including their composition, diagenetic changes over burial, and nomenclature based on textural and chemical maturity.
This document discusses the use of organic geochemistry in oil exploration. It begins with an introduction to organic geochemistry and outlines source rock evaluation including quantity and quality of organic matter, and thermal maturation. Quantity is evaluated using total organic carbon content. Quality is evaluated using Rock-Eval pyrolysis and van Krevelen diagrams to determine kerogen type. Maturation is evaluated using Tmax, vitrinite reflectance and production index. Biomarkers obtained through extraction, chromatography and mass spectrometry are used to determine depositional environment.
The material presented in this parts is extracted from open source published material. This is for understanding to graduate students in easy way only.
The document discusses concepts related to petroleum generation and maturation including kerogen types, maceral groups, rock eval pyrolysis, and cuttings gas analysis. It provides details on:
1) The four main kerogen types (I-IV) and their source materials and hydrocarbon potential.
2) The three main maceral groups (liptinite, vitrinite, inertinite) and their origins.
3) How rock eval pyrolysis works and parameters measured like Tmax, HI, OI, and how they indicate kerogen type and maturity.
4) How cuttings gas analysis measures light hydrocarbons to determine gas wetness, hydrocarbon balance, and character ratios to classify fluid type
The document discusses mineral matter found in coal. It states that over 150 mineral species have been identified in coal, with the most common being clay minerals. Common minerals include quartz, pyrite, calcite, dolomite, siderite, and ankerite. Mineral matter can be inherent, consisting of organic material from the original plants, or extraneous, derived from outside sources. Extraneous mineral matter can harm coal quality by reducing its heating value and causing issues like slagging during combustion if not removed. Pyrite in particular can cause problems like acid mine drainage when exposed to air. The effects of different types of mineral matter on coal quality and combustion are also summarized.
Petroleum has been used for thousands of years, with the earliest known oil wells dating back 5-6 thousand years before Christ. There are two main theories for the origin of petroleum - abiogenic or biogenic. Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons such as paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics, along with other elements like sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Crude oil is refined into many useful products through fractional distillation, with typical final products including fuels like gasoline, diesel and jet fuel; lubricating oils; wax; and feedstocks for the petrochemical industry to produce plastics and other materials.
Coal forms over millions of years from the decomposition of plant matter. There are two main theories for how coal forms - in situ, where plants decay where they grew, and drift, where plants are transported before deposition and burial. Coal forms through a series of stages as plant matter is transformed into peat and then into progressively higher ranks of coal like lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite coal. Composition and heating value change as coal rank increases, with carbon content and heating value rising as moisture, oxygen, and hydrogen decrease. Coal analysis involves determining proximate properties like moisture and volatile content or ultimate properties like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur content.
The conversion of organic matter to petroleumBelal El Nagar
1. The conversion of organic matter to petroleum requires organic matter such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and lignin to be buried in deep sediment layers in an oxygen-deficient environment.
2. Over time and with increasing heat and pressure, the organic matter transforms first into kerogen and then into petroleum and natural gas through the processes of diagenesis, catagenesis and metagenesis.
3. Key factors that influence the preservation of organic matter and its conversion to petroleum include rapid burial to limit oxidation, high total organic carbon content, and a low oxygen to carbon ratio in the original organic material.
P chapter 7 properties and structure of bitumens usa 1978Vainicat Rpo
This document summarizes properties and structures of naturally occurring bitumens. It begins by classifying bituminous substances based on their solubility, fusibility, and other properties. The major classes discussed are mineral waxes like ozocerite, asphalts like Bermudez pitch, asphaltites like gilsonite, and oil shale bitumens. Key properties of each class like composition, molecular weight, and melting/softening points are presented. The document aims to characterize different naturally occurring bitumens and understand their average chemical structures based on physical and chemical analysis.
Petroleum, also known as rock oil, is a naturally occurring complex hydrocarbon found underground. It exists in solid, liquid, and gaseous forms. Commercial deposits are always found underground in sedimentary rocks. Petroleum is formed from the remains of ancient organisms over millions of years. It is known as a fossil fuel and "liquid gold" due to its economic value. Crude oil and natural gas deposits are found through petroleum exploration of sedimentary basins around the world. India contains 26 sedimentary basins covering over 3.5 million square kilometers that are categorized based on their hydrocarbon prospectivity and production status.
This document provides an outline of a lecture on the generation of petroleum. It discusses:
1) The origin of petroleum from organic matter formed by photosynthesis and preserved in sediments.
2) The processes of early sediment diagenesis that degrade organic matter and form kerogen.
3) Catagenesis, where increasing heat and pressure during burial matures kerogen to form petroleum like oil and gas.
Petroleum is formed from organic materials that are deposited in sedimentary basins over millions of years. The key steps in petroleum formation include: (1) deposition and burial of organic-rich source rocks; (2) generation of hydrocarbons from the buried organic matter through thermal maturation; (3) migration of hydrocarbons from the source rock into reservoir rocks; and (4) accumulation of hydrocarbons in structural or stratigraphic traps in reservoir rocks where they are preserved. Successful petroleum exploration requires identification of source, reservoir, and seal rocks in areas with suitable burial and thermal histories to generate and trap commercial quantities of oil and gas.
Coal is a combustible sedimentary rock formed from prehistoric vegetation buried and altered over millions of years. It comes in various types or "ranks" depending on the degree of alteration, ranging from lignite to anthracite. Global coal reserves are estimated at over 984 billion tonnes, enough to last over 190 years at current production rates. Major coal reserves are located in the United States, Russia, China, India, and Australia. Coal is used primarily as an energy source, fueling almost 40% of global electricity generation.
Similar to COAL AND ITS RELATION TO OIL AND GAS (20)
3. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
Both coal and petroleum are related in terms of;
•Origin: Both originate predominantly from organisms of the plant kingdom
•Geologic processes/Formation: Subjected to the same geological processes
However, they differ based on;
•State of occurrence: coal is found at its site of deposition as a solid, while
petroleum is liquid and migrates from the source beds into porous reservoir rocks
•Environment of deposition: Most coals are deposited under non-marine condition•Environment of deposition: Most coals are deposited under non-marine condition
•Primary (Organic) Matter: Most coals are remnants of terrestrial higher plants
while kerogen is dominated by phytoplankton and bacteria.
•Coal as a rock, is a compact, stratified and metamorphosed plant remains with
subordinate amount of inorganic materials. These plant remains undergo a
sequence of physical, biochemical and chemical changes, which result in a series
of coal of increasing rank
•Organic materials are microscopically identifiable, they are termed macerals and
are similar to kerogen, the main precursor material of petroleum compounds.
4. COALIFICATIONCOALIFICATION
•This is a process that results in the production of coals of different
ranks ranging from peat to anthracite.
•Coalification is subdivided into;
•Biochemical phase: This involves the activities of micro organisms
such as bacteria and fungi on the organic matter
•Geochemical phase: This involves no activity of microbes to
subsequent increase in temperature and pressure through burial which
leads to further coalification increase.leads to further coalification increase.
•The general parameters used in determining the rank/series of coal;
•Moisture
•Volatile content General Parameter
•Reflectance
•Carbon Content
•Hydrogen Content Chemical Parameter
•Calorific value
7. COAL PETROGRAPHYCOAL PETROGRAPHY
Microscopic (Petrographic) study of visible features of coal is
the basis of coal petrography. Polished coal specimens are
examined in reflected light. The petrographic components are
called Macerals.
The three groups of macerals are:
•Vitrinite/Huminite (Appears Grey)
•Liptinite/Exinite (Appears Dark)
•Inertinite (Appears White)
8. MACERAL GROUP MACERAL COMPOSED/DERIVED
FROM
VITRINITE Collinite Humic gels
Tellinite Wood, bark and cuticle
tissue
LIPTINITE/EXINITE Sporinite Spores
Cutinite Leaf Cuticles
Resinite Resin bodies and waxes
Table 1: Maceral Group, Macerals and Origins
Resinite Resin bodies and waxes
Alganite Algal remains
INTERTINITE Micrinite Unspecified detrirtal
matter <10µm
Macrinite Unspecified detrital
matter 10µm - 100µm
Semifusinite and Fusinite Carbonized wood tissue
Sclerotinite Fungal sclerotia and
mycelia
11. Figure 3: Evolution paths of maceral groups in coals. (After van Krevelen, 1961)
12. KEROGENKEROGEN
As organic matter matures from biopolymers (such as lipids, lignins, e.t.c.)
to geopolymers (nitrogenous and humic complexes), the resultant effect is
the formation of kerogen
Kerogen is hence the insoluble organic matter in sedimentary rocks, the
soluble constituent is known as bitumen.
Kerogens in sedimentary rocks (source rocks) can be examined optically
or chemically
The optical analysis deals with viewing prepared polished sections of the
sample of rock under reflected light microscopy to reveal thesample of rock under reflected light microscopy to reveal the
microscopically proven constituents contained in the rock.
On the basis of primary source material, there are three types of kerogen;
Type I known as Liptinite
Type II known as Exitinite
Type III known as Vitrinite
However, Type IV is also known but it’s of no significance. It is
associated with coal and organic matter that has been greatly oxidised. It is
called Inertinite
13. KEROGEN
TYPE I (LIPTINITE)
Sourced from algal
lipids and bacteria
activities.
Contains high
concentration of alkanes
and fatty acids
TYPE II (EXINITE)
An admixture of
marine material and
terrestrial material.
Has more aromatic
compounds, with ester
bonds and sulfur
TYPE III (VITRINITE)
Main source of organic
matter are terrestrial plants
and rich in lignin
Abundant in continental
environment
Abundant in lacustrine
deposits
Characterize by high
H:C atomic ratio and low
O:C atomic ratio
Has HI (>300) and OI
(<50)
Best source for oil-prone
maturation and very rare
Derived from marine
organic matter
Characterize by
relatively low H:C
atomic ratio and
relatively high O:C
atomic ratio
Has HI (200-300) and
OI (50-100)
Good oil and gas
prone kerogen
characterize by low H:C
atomic ratio and high O:C
ratio
Has HI (<200) and OI
(>100)
Less favourable for oil
generation , provide a
source rock for gas
14. Figure 4: Evolution paths of major kerogen types. (After van Krevelen, 1961)
15. Figure 5a: Photomicrograph showing Type I kerogen assemblage (Redfern, 2010)Figure 5a: Photomicrograph showing Type I kerogen assemblage (Redfern, 2010)
Figure 5b: Photomicrograph showing Type II kerogen assemblage (Redfern, 2010)
16. The rank or maturity of a sedimentary rock containing organic matter
can be determined by measuring the reflectance of finely dispersed
small huminite or vitrinite particles. This parameter allows a sediment
to be evaluated with respect to whether oil or gas generation has
taken place (Vassoevich et al.,1969; Teichmr,iller. 1971; Dow. 1977)
Vitrinite is a very useful kerogen type because under reflected light
microscopic analysis, its measure can be compared to a standard which
IMPORTANCE OF VITRINITE IN COAL, OILAND GAS
can depict the maturity of the source rock being examined
In the same vein, maceral vitrinite is very important in coal petrography.
Its significance is obvious through vitrinite reflectance analysis which is
the reflectance of maceral vitrinite when oil is dropped on coal and
measured against a standard as the reflected light is essentially on the
vitrinite. Hence, the reflectance can depict the coal rank.
17. PETROLEUM GENERATIONPETROLEUM GENERATION
The physical and chemical changes which occur with increase
in temperature and pressure with burial . This indicates that
the loss of hydrogen and oxygen, resulting in the liberation of
hydrogen- and oxygen - rich carbon containing molecules
during coalification process and is determined by type of
organic matter present, temperature, and time. These
include CO2 and CH4
Heavier molecular weight substances similar to those found in Heavier molecular weight substances similar to those found in
petroleum are also generated in coals. This is observed
between the physicochemical properties and their structural
and chemical evolution brought about by catagenesis (Durand
et al., 1977). This is thus noted between coals and Type III
kerogens.
18. Figure 6: Relationship between coals and petroleum with maturation, aapgbull.geoscienceworld.org,
2012
19. COAL AS A SOURCE ROCKCOAL AS A SOURCE ROCK
It has been well established that coals are capable of generating and
releasing sufficient gas to form large commercial gas accumulations
(Patijn, 1964a and b; Karweil, 1956, 1969).
It is generally accepted that coals contain total ogranic matter above 1 –
1.5% to be a viable source rock. (Brooks&Smith 1967, Bertrand 1984)
However, depending on the amount of liptinite in coals and chainlike
molecular structures, liquid hydrocarbons can be generated from coals.
(Akande et al., 1998: Obaje et al., 1999)
Also, some submacerals of vitrinite such as resinites, cutinites and Also, some submacerals of vitrinite such as resinites, cutinites and
desmocollinite are hydrogen rich and are capable of generating and
expelling liquid hydrobarbons (Clayton 1993, Hunt 1991, Ogala 2011)
The origin, nature and significance of micrinite maceral to oil and gas
generation have attracted much attention. Micrinite (a submaceral under
inertinite maceral group) is related to liptinite and it is believed that it
may have been generated from liptinite (Teichmueller and Wolf ,1977) .
The concentration of micrinite particles may thus offer a useful means of
trailing the process of liquid hydrocarbon generation in coals.
20. GLOBALGLOBAL OCCURRENCE OFOCCURRENCE OF COAL DERIVED OILCOAL DERIVED OIL
Cretaceous to Paleocene coal-bearing sequences in Bass and
Gippsland , Australia (Fielding 1992, Bishop 2000)
Eocene coal bearing sequence in the Taranaki Basin, New Zealand
(King and Thrascher 1992, Flores 2003)
Upper Cretaceous Mamu Formation, Anambra basin,
Nigeria(Akande et al. 1998, Obaje et al. 1998, Ogala 2011)Nigeria(Akande et al. 1998, Obaje et al. 1998, Ogala 2011)
21. BASINS HAVING COAL AS A SOURCE ROCKBASINS HAVING COAL AS A SOURCE ROCK
Table 3: World wide Occurrence of Coal as a Source Rock
22. CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION
Coal consists of mainly detritus from (higher) terrestrial plants and is
formed under non-marine condition.
The processes that result in the production of coals of different ranks from
peat to anthracite is termed coalification. Each rank marks a reduction in
the percentage of volatiles and moisture and an increase in percentage of
carbon.
Chemical changes in coal during its evolution through the different
rank stages can be compared with the evolution of various kerogen
types. The greatest chemical and evolutionary similarities are observedtypes. The greatest chemical and evolutionary similarities are observed
between coal and type III kerogen.
During coalification, low molecular weight hydrocarbons, especially
CH4 and other volatile non-hydrocarbon compounds, such as CO2 and
H2O are generated. In addition heavier, nonvolatile hydrocarbons are
formed.
Coal is generally known as a potential source rock for gas, but may
generate commercial oil accumulations, depending on the liptinite
content.