Foundations and Methods of Psychology

1. Psychology
Unit 1: Foundations and Research

2. Unit 1 Overview
• PPS 1.1-Define psychology as a discipline and identify its goals as a science
• PPS 1.2-Describe the emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline
• PPS-1.3-Describe perspectives employed to understand behavior and mental processes
• PPS-1.4-Explain how psychology evolved as a scientific discipline
• RMS 1.1: Describe the scientific method and its role in psychology
• RMS 1.2: Describe and compare a variety of quantitative and qualitative research methods
• RMS 2.1: Identify ethical standards psychologist must address regarding research with
human participants.
Unit EQ:
How have philosophical perspectives and theoretical approaches
shaped the development of psychology?
You will need to be able to “Do” the following:

3. • Psychology is a social science that studies mental
processing and behavior
• Psychology employs several different major theoretical
perspectives and/or subfields
• Psychologists use several approaches to conducting
research, all sociologists follow a seven step research
process, and psychologists are bound by ethical guidelines.
You will need to be able to “Understand” the
following:

4. Unit 1 Outline
Concept 1: The Discipline of Psychology
Concept 2: Foundations and Perspectives
Concept 3: Modern Perspectives
Concept 4: Conducting Psychological Research
Lesson: 1 2 3
Concept 5: Ethics

5. Foundations and Perspectives
Unit EQ: How have philosophical perspectives and theoretical approaches
shaped the development of psychology?
EQ 1: What is Psychology?
EQ 2: How have historical figures, philosophical perspectives and various
theoretical approaches shaped the development of psychology?
EQ 3: How is psychology distinguished by different domains?
Vocabulary
• Structuralism
• Functionalism
• Gestalt
• Charles Darwin
• Sigmund Freud
• Carl Rogers
• Wilhelm Wundt
• William James
• John Watson
• B.F. Skinner
• Psychoanalytic Perspective
• Behavioral (Learning) Perspective
• Biological Perspective
• Humanistic Perspective
• Sociocultural Perspective

6. Activator
• Who is the most important person in psychology? Why?

7. Early Influence
• “What is the nature of the mind and soul?”
• “What is the relationship between the mind and the body?”
Psyche = Soul ology = Study of

8. What is psychology?
Psych = Soul -ology = Study of
Assessment Prompt: Create a definition for Psychology
Definition: The scientific study of mental processes and
behavior.

9. Psychological Fields
Applied vs Research
How does a psychiatrist differ from a psychologist?
A psychiatrist has a medical degree and can prescribe medicine
in addition to therapy.

10. Presentations

11. Early Influence
Wilhelm Wundt
• Father of Psychology
• Developed concept of
introspection
• 1st Psychology Laboratory for
studying humans
• Moved from the philosophy of
mental process to the science
of mental process
Edward Titchener
• Expanded on Wundt’s
teaching calling it
structuralism
Margaret Washburn
G. Stanley Hall
• Receives first Ph.D.
based on psychological
research
• Establishes first U.S.
psychology lab at
John’s Hopkins
• Founder of A.P.A

12. Early Influence
William James
• Father of American
Psychology
• Rejected structuralism
• Founder of functionalism
• Wrote first psychology
textbook
Mary Whinton CalkinsCharles Darwin
• Proposed idea of
Natural Selection.
Physical trait that
aid in survival are
passed on.

13. Early Influence
• Objected to structuralist point
of view. Experiences couldn’t
be broken down into parts and
be properly understood.
• Founders of Gestalt
psychology.
• Gestalt (German)
• “organized wholes” or “whole
shape”
• People naturally seek out patterns
(“wholes”) in sensory information
• “The sum is greater than its parts”

14. Early Influence
Carl Jung
Alfred Adler
Anna Freud
Erik Erikson
Sigmund Freud
• Founder of
Psychoanalysis
• Sought to help
patients (therapy)
• Idea of the
unconscious mind

15. Early Influence
Ivan Pavlov
• His early medical
research focused on
stimulus / response
relationship
John Watson
• Mental events should
be ignored
• Founder of behaviorism
• Psychology should
focus on observable
behavior.
• Most important
determinate of
behavior is learning
B.F. Skinner
• Focused on the effects of
rewards and punishments on
behavior
• Founder of operant
conditioning
Mary Cover Jones
• Early pioneer of behavioral
therapy
• Began the process of
“counterconditioning”

16. Diversity in Psychology
Gilbert Haven Jones
• Taught at the local black high school in Carlisle, Pa
• Masters degree in philosophy from Dickinson College.
• Completed his Ph.D. in philosophy two years in Germany.
• Jones returned to the United States where he taught at First
African American professor of psychology
Mary Whinton Calkins
• Denied degree by Harvard due to gender
• 1st female president of the American Psychological Association
Margaret Washburn
1st Women to receive a Ph.D. in psychology

17. Diversity in Psychology
George (Jorg) Sanchez
• Father of “Chicano Psychology”
• Worked to show cultural bias in intelligence testing
Kenneth and Mamie Clark
• Worked to show the negative effects of school segregation
Francis Cecil Sumner
• First African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology (1920)
• Referred to as the "Father of African American Psychology“

18. Foundational Perspectives
Summarize the beliefs of each of the following perspectives.
Structuralism
Functionalism
Gestalt
Psychoanalysis
Behaviorism

19. Structuralism
• Wilhelm Wundt
• Focused on the basic elements of consciousness
• “What are the elements of psychological
processes?”
• Broke consciousness down (Human Mind)
• Objective sensations
• Accurately reflect outside world
• Subjective sensations
• Included emotional experiences
• Introspection: a person carefully examines and
reports their own experiences

20. Functionalism
• William James
• Stated conscious experience can’t be broken
down
• Focused on how mental processes help
organisms adapt to their environment
• “What is the purpose of behavior and process?”
• Used introspection and observation
• Evolution

21. Foundations and Perspectives
Unit EQ: How have philosophical perspectives and theoretical approaches
shaped the development of psychology?
EQ 1: How is psychology distinguished by different domains?
Vocabulary
• Structuralism
• Functionalism
• Gestalt
• Charles Darwin
• Sigmund Freud
• Carl Rogers
• Wilhelm Wundt
• William James
• John Watson
• B.F. Skinner
• Psychoanalytic Perspective
• Behavioral (Learning) Perspective
• Biological Perspective
• Humanistic Perspective
• Sociocultural Perspective

22. Activator
• Who is the most important person in psychology? Why?

23. Modern Psychological Perspectives
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Cognitive
Biopsychological
Humanistic
Sociocultural
Evolutionary
Summarize the key aspects of each perspective. When applicable,
identify which Key Contributors are associated with a perspective.
Eclecticism: a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a
single viewpoint, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas
to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories
in particular cases.

24. Psychodynamic Approach
• Rooted in the ideas of Sigmund
Freud and Psychoanalysis
• Behavior and mental process
reflects the unconscious
struggle
• Unconscious desires vs the
need to follow rules
• Not as focused on unconscious
sexual desires as Psychoanalysis
• More focus on sense of self and
discovery of other motives

25. Behavioral (Learning) Approach
• Rooted in the ideas of Watson and Skinner
• Focus is on observable behavior and how behavior is
learned
• Rewards and punishments affect behavior
• Many now also try to understand thoughts/cognition

26. Cognitive Approach
• Focuses on
• How we take in, mentally
represent, and store
information
• How we perceive and
process information
• How the cognitive process
affects behavior
• Text Example-Butting in line
(pg. 22)

27. Humanistic Approach
• Influenced by Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow
• Behavior is the result of people
choosing how to think and act
• Unique experiences guide
thoughts and actions
• Choices are steered by individual’s
unique perspectives
• See the world as friendly ->
optimistic and secure
• People have a natural tendency to
grow toward their highest
potential

28. Bio(psycho)logical Approach
• Behavior and Mental Process
shaped by the biological
process
• Study the effects of hormones,
genes, and the activity of the
nervous system
• They would examine brain
activity using brain scans when
examining thinking
• Treatment through medications
• Highly influential today

29. Evolutionary Approach
• Based on Darwin’s Ideas of
evolution and natural selection
• Focus on Evolution’s impact on
genes
• Genes result in characteristics and
behaviors that are useful and
adaptive
• Assumes behavior and mental
process are the result of evolution.
• Ex. Aggression is a form of
territorial protection

30. Sociocultural
• Study the effect that people
have on each other whether it
is individually or in large groups
• Combines:
• Social Psychology – study of
groups, social roles, and rules
of social action
• Cultural Psychology – studies
cultural norms, values, and
expectations

31. Biopsychosocial Approach
• An integrated viewpoint that incorporates various levels of
analysis and offers a more complete picture of any given
behavior or mental process.

32. Unit 2 Overview
• RMS 1.1: Describe the scientific method and its role in psychology
• RMS 1.2: Describe and compare a variety of quantitative and
qualitative research methods
• RMS 2.1: Identify ethical standards psychologist must address regarding
research with human participants.
Unit EQ:
How have philosophical perspectives and theoretical approaches
shaped the development of psychology?
You will need to be able to “Do” the following:

33. • Psychologists use several approaches to conducting
research, all sociologists follow a seven step research
process, and psychologists are bound by ethical guidelines.
You will need to be able to “Understand” the
following:

34. Unit 2 Outline
Concept 1: Conducting Psychological Research
Lesson: 1 2 3
Concept 2: Ethics

35. Conducting Psychological Research
Vocabulary
• scientific method
• Dependent variable
• Independent variable
• Experimental group
• Control group
• Double-blind study
• Confounding variable
• Placebo
EQ: How do psychologists use a variety of scientific research
methods to draw reasonable conclusions?
• RMS 1.1: Describe the scientific method and its role in
psychology
• RMS 1.2: Describe and compare a variety of quantitative
and qualitative research methods

36. Activator:
Steps of the Scientific Method

38. 1. Question
• Research questions are best
focused on behavior rather than
constructs that cannot be seen or
measured directly.
2. Hypothesis
• Form a hypothesis about the
answer to the research question.
• A hypothesis is an educated guess
• Specifies a relationship between
two aspects. (i.e. IV & DV)
3. Testing the Hypothesis
• A hypothesis cannot be considered
to be correct until it has been
scientifically tested and proved to
be right..
• May use a variety of research
methods to test a hypothesis.
4. Analyzing the Results
• What do their findings mean?
• Psychologists often look for
patterns and relationships in the
data.
5. Drawing Conclusions
• Psychologists draw conclusions about their research question and their
hypothesis.
• When observations do not support a hypothesis, they often must change the
theories or beliefs from which the hypothesis was derived.

39. • Psychologists use the experimental method to answer questions
about cause and effect.
• The hypothesis specifies the relationship between two aspects.
(i.e. the IV and DV)
• Independent Variables (IV) and Dependent Variables (DV)
• Experiments have variables, which are factors that can vary, or
change.
• The independent variable is the factor that researchers
manipulate.
• The dependent variable is the factor whose value depends on
a change made to the independent variable.
ResearchDesign:Hypothesisand Variables

40. Research Design: Operational Definition
• Specific statements describing how the IV is manipulated and
how the DV is measured.

41. Replication
• The ability of an entire experiment or study to be reproduced,
either by the researcher or by someone else working
independently.
• It is one of the main principles of the scientific method
• Why?

42. Adderall Experiment Exercise 1
Hypothesis: If a person diagnosed with Attention Deficit
Disorder (ADD) is given 20mg of Adderall then his/her focus
time will increase.
Assessment Prompt: Using all the hypothesis above, identify
the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV).
Write your answer on a sheet of paper.
IVDV

43. Extraneous & Confounding Variables
Extraneous Variables: Undesirable variables that influence the
relationship between the variables that an experimenter is
examining.
Other Factors
(Extraneous &
Confounding
Variables)
Confounding Variables: Extraneous variables that vary with the
levels of the independent variable are the most dangerous type in
terms of challenging the validity of experimental results.

44. Variables
Questions:
1. In the Bystander Effect study or the Adderall Study, what
might be some of the confounding variables?
2. What does the phrase “the power of suggestion” mean?

45. Design an Experiment
• Assuming that the “power of suggestion” is the only variable
you are worried about, you are to design an experiment that
compensates for this variable.
• The details of your experiment should be written down.

46. Blind Studies
Double-Blind Studies
• Participants and researchers are unaware of who receives the treatment.
• Double-blind studies help researchers avoid the influence of expectations
and remain unbiased.
Single-Blind Studies
• Participants unaware of the treatment.
• Helps to avoid The Placebo Effect
– A placebo is a substance or treatment that has no effect apart from a
person’s belief in its effect.
– Feeling better simply because we expect to feel better—and for no
other reason—is an example of the placebo effect.

47. Groups
• Experimental and Control
Groups
– Members of an
experimental group
receive the treatment;
members of a control
group do not.
– All other conditions are
held constant for both
the experimental group
and the control group.
– A controlled experiment
uses both a control group
and an experiment
group.

48. Selection of Subjects
Random Sample
• The process of choosing
the research participants
from the population
• Happen BEFORE
assignment
Random
Assignment
• Each participant has
equal chance of being
placed into any group
• Placement into
experimental or control
group

49. Samples
• Sampling Bias (Selection Bias) is systematic error due to a non-
random sample of a population, causing some members of the
population to be less likely to be included than others, resulting in
a biased sample.
• Ensure samples accurately represent the population.
• Random Assignment & Sample
• individuals are selected by chance from the target population.
• Stratified Sample
• consists of subgroups in the population that are represented
proportionally.
• A large random sample is more likely to be accurately stratified
even if researchers take no steps to ensure that it is.

50. ParticipatoryLearning – FlawedExperiment
1. Hypothesis: “Smart” people tend to be more open-minded
and flexible.
2. Subjects: To test the hypothesis above, the experimenter
asks a wide variety of friends to complete a puzzle that
requires flexibility. Then he or she compares their scores.
3. Procedure: The experimenter tries to test the hypothesis
above on his friends, but they are too busy. Instead, he or
she uses strangers. The experimenter administers a brief
intelligence test, then gives subjects a test of flexibility. In the
morning he or she finds a group in the cafeteria and passes
out the tests to them. In the afternoon, the experimenter
finds people in the library who are studying by themselves.
Pick out the flaws in the following statement.

51. Extraneous Variables
• Placebo Effect
• Experimenter Effect (Bias)
• Observer Bias
• Sampling Bias/Selection Bias/Volunteer Bias
• Observer Effect (Hawthorne Effect)
• Courtesy Bias
Bias is a predisposition to a certain point of view

52. Quasi-Experiment (Natural
Experiments)
• Quasi (Similar or Seemingly)
• A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an
experimental design but lacks the key ingredient -- random
assignment.
• Experiments that take advantage of natural occurrences are
quasi-experiments
• Example 1: comparing achievement level of first-born children
with that of later-born children
• Example 2: comparing student performance at two schools, one
of which has a lower student-teacher ratio.
• The experimenter is unable to assign subjects to treatment
level - the subjects are already in pre-existing groups.

53. Adderall Experiment Exercise 2
Hypothesis: If a person diagnosed with Attention Deficit
Disorder (ADD) is given 20mg of Adderall then his/her focus
time will increase.
Assessment Prompt : Using all terms on the vocabulary sheet,
design and label and experiment that tests the above
hypothesis

54. Adderall Experiment Exercise 2
Vocabulary Application to the Experiment
Independent
Variable
Dependent
Variable
Control Group
Experimental
Group
Placebo
Single-Blind Study
Double-Blind Study
20mg of Adderall
Groups that receives the Placebo not the Adderall
Group that receives the Adderall
False pill to make up for the power of suggestion
Researcher knows who took the Adderall/Subject Doesn’t
Neither Researcher or Subject knows who took Adderall
Ability to Focus

55. • The tendency of research
subjects to change their
behavior as a result of their
awareness of being observed.
• It was named for a 1927
workplace study.
The Hawthorne Effect
Case Study: Learning from a Flawed Experiment
• Was not a blind study
• Did not have a control group
• Small Sample Size
• Results of the study may have
been misinterpreted
Flaws in the Hawthorne Study

56. Summarizing Activity
5 Steps of the Scientific Method, 2 Variables,
and Questions Remaining

57. ConductingPsychologicalResearch:MethodsandData
Vocabulary
• Quantitative
• Qualitative
• Naturalistic Observation
• Interviews
• Case Study
• Psychological Tests
• Longitudinal method
• Cross-Sectional Method
• Survey Method
EQ: How do psychologists use a variety of scientific
research methods to draw reasonable conclusions?
Activator: Remember the Methods of Research

58. Bystander
Effect
And
Diffusion of
Responsibility
Kitty
Genovese

59. Assignment: Experiment Creation
• Create a testable thesis
• Your group should then design an experiment that could be
used to test the phenomenon of diffusion of responsibility
(bystander effect).
• Include as many details as possible.
• Be prepared to share out.

60. Psychological Methods

61. Psychological Methods

62. Psychological Methods

63. Volunteer Bias
• When conducting surveys, bias may occur on the part of the
respondents.
• Volunteer bias: People who volunteer to participate in studies
may have a different outlook from people who do not volunteer.
– Volunteers are usually more willing to disclose personal
information.
– They may have more spare time to participate.
– Volunteers probably do not represent the target population.

64. ConductingPsychologicalResearch:MethodsandData
Vocabulary
• Median
• Mode
• Mean
• Correlation coefficient
• Central tendency
• variability
• histogram
• descriptive statistics
• Inferential statistics
• range
• standard deviation (SD)
• Statistical significance
• normal distribution
• sample
Activator:
EQ: How do statistical concepts apply to psychological
research?
How do ethical and legal guidelines impact psychological
research?

65. Statistics
• Statistics: Branch of mathematics concerned with the
collection and interpretation of data from a sample.
• Descriptive Statistics: a way of organizing numbers and
summarizing them so that they can be understood.
• Two Main Types
• Measure of Central Tendency: Used to summarize the data
and give you one score that seems typical
• Measure of Variability: Used to indicate how spread out the
data are.
• Inferential Statistics: drawing conclusion by analyzing the data
to find differences and meaning in the data

66. Critical Thinking Activity
Experimental
Group
Control
Group
Average Score
(Mean)
81% 67%
Highest Score 89% 87%
Lowest Score 73% 34%
Median Score
(Mid-Point)
79% 77%
Complete Methods of Psychology: Critical
Thinking Activity worksheet in your packet.

67. Descriptive Statistics

68. Central Tendency
• Mean: “The Average” Most commonly used measure of
central tendency. Add up all the numbers in a set and then
divide by the total amount of numbers used.
• Median: Middle number in a set of data(Helps if there are a
few extreme scores)
• Mode: Most frequent score
• Bimodal: two very different yet very frequent scores. In this
case no measure of central tendency does you much good.

69. Frequency Distribution
Frequency Distribution: A table or graph that shows how often
different numbers, or scores, appear in a particular set of scores.
Polygon Histogram (bar graph) Frequency Table

70. Measures of Variability
• Range: Difference between the highest and lowest score in a
set of scores.
• Is limited as a measure of variability when extreme scores are
involved

71. Measures of Variability
• Standard Deviation:

72. Measures of Variability
• Z-score: The way of calculating how many standard deviations
you are away from the mean. Provides a way of comparing
sets of data to the normal distribution (such as IQ test scores)

73. Standard Deviation: IQ

74. Curve

75. Inferential Statistics

76. One method psychologists use to analyze and interpret their
observations is correlation. Correlation is a measure of how closely
one thing is related to another. The stronger the correlation between
two things, the more closely the two things are related.
• Positive correlation occurs
when an increase in one thing
is accompanied by an increase
in the other.
• Negative correlation occurs
when a increase in one thing is
accompanied by a decrease in
the other. (or vice versa)
Positive and Negative
Correlation
Analyzing the Observations
• Correlation describes
relationships, but it does not
reveal cause and effect.
• Just because two things are
related does not necessarily
mean that one causes the other.
Limits of Correlation

77. Correlation: Scatterplot

78. Correlation vs. Causation
• What do you think is meant by the statement , “Correlation
does not imply causation.”?

79. Correlational Coefficient
• It represents the direction and strength of the relationshp.
• Ranges between +1.0 and -1.0.
• The closer r is to +1.0 and -1.0 the stronger the relationship

80. Assignment: Frankenstein and Ethics
• In your packet, read Ethics in
Experimentation: Frankenstein and
Complete Questions 1, 3-5
• REMINDER: UNIT 1 Exam is Wednesday
STUDY!!!

81. APA Ethical Guidelines
for Human Research
• Informed Consent - participants must know that they are involved in
research and give their consent or permission
• Deception - if the participants are deceived in any way about the nature of
the study, the deception must not be so extreme as to invalidate the
informed consent.
• Coercion - participants cannot be coerced in any way to give consent to be
in the study.
• Anonymity-the identities and actions of participants must not be revealed
in any way by the researcher.
• Risk-participants cannot be placed at significant mental or physical risk.
This clause requires interpretation by the review board.
• Debriefing Procedures -participants must be told of the purpose of the
study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about the results.

82. Unit 1 Exam Topics
• Definition of Psychology
• Applied vs. Research Psychologist
• Historical Figures/Contributions
• Psychological Perspectives
• Experimentation (Terms and Application)
• Data (Correlation)
• Methods of Research
• Ethics