Philosophy and ethics of research basic concepts by dr vijay kumar, teacher educator

Philosophy & Ethics
Research Publication and Ethics
(DRRM703)
Dr. Vijay Kumar, Teacher Educator
School of Education, Apeejay Stya University

Welcome !
• Doctoral classes
• Terminal degree-highest formal degree
• Doubles the scope
• There are two doctoral degrees
• Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) & Professional
doctoral degree
• Ph.D is more academic research
4/26/2021
Philosophy Concepts by Dr. Vijay Kumar
School of Education, ASU
2

• Ph.D (Education), PhD. (Management), Ph.D
(Biosciences)
• Professional doctoral degree: Doctor of
Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of
Education (EdD), Doctor of Nursing Practice
(DNP), and Doctor of Public Health (DrPH)
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3

Philosophy: Few Questions
• What is life?
• What are the purposes of life?
• Why we take birth?
• Why we die?
• What happens after death?
• What is reality?
• How do we know about something?
• Why we value, cherish something?
• Why we are doing, what we are doing?
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Understanding two important notions
• Who they are or intend to be?
• Why they do or propose to do what they do?
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Eric Berne’s
three important questions:
Who am I?
Why am I here?
Who are all these other people, and what do
they want of me?
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Philosophical Inquiry
• “Whatever people choose to embrace, if their
choices are made in a logical, rational manner, they
are engaged in the process of ‘doing philosophy.’”
Three specific areas of philosophical inquiry:
• Metaphysics concerned with questions about the
nature of reality;
• Epistemology concerned with the nature of
knowledge;
• Axiology concerned with the nature of values
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Philosophy
• Philosophy has been derived from two Greek
words.
• “Philo” means love and “Sophia” means
wisdom
• Philosophy : love of wisdom
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Philosophy
• Philosophy (philosophía) – “love of wisdom”
(Pythagoras)
• the study of general problems concerning
matters such as existence, knowledge, truth,
beauty, justice, validity, mind, language …
• Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of
addressing these questions (such as mysticism
or mythology) by its critical and systematic
approach.
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Definition
• Aristotle: “Philosophy is the science which
investigates the nature of being, as it is in
itself”.
• Pluto : “He who has a taste for every sort of
knowledge and who is curious to learn and is
never satisfied may be termed philosopher”.
• Dr. Radhakrishnan (1888-1975): Philosophy is
a logical inquiry into the nature of reality.
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• Bertrand Russel (1872-1970): States,
“Philosophy is to be studied not for the sake of
any definite answers to its questions…. But
rather for the sake of the questions
themselves, because these questions enlarge
our conception of what is possible… but above
all because the mind also is rendered great
and becomes capable of that union with the
universe which constitutes its heist goal.”
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Features
• Philosophy is systematic enquiry about the ultimate reality
of the universe.
– It is logical in its approach.
– enquire about life and existence
– search for truth and reality.
– Science of knowledge
• Philosophy is study of general principles & understanding of
all that comes in the range of human experience.
• Philosophy is a living force.
– ever growing and developing.
• It is a way of life.
• It is the oldest and original discipline of thought.
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• Philosophers try to see life as a whole.
– Seeks the knowledge of whole
– related to condition of life and society
• Philosophy is a product of time and
circumstances.
• It is flexible in its approach.
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M R
E K
A V
PHILOSOPHY AND ITS BRANCHES
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Metaphysics
•Reality
theory
Epistemology
•Knowledge
theory
Axiology
•Values
theory
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Metaphysics
• Etymological from two Greek words
‘mata’ = “After”, Beyond and
physika = “nature”.
• Metaphysics= “after/beyond the things of
nature”
• Based on the works of Aristotle
• ontology, theology, and universal science.
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• The philosophy of the nature of being, existence,
reality
• study of the fundamental nature of all reality —
– what is it?
– why is it?
– how are we can understand it?
• Study of “higher” reality or the “invisible” nature
behind everything,
• Study of all of reality
– visible and invisible,
– natural and supernatural.
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Study of theory beyond nature
= Reality Theory
• The Problem of Being
• The Problem of Substance
• The Problem of Essence and Existence
• The Problem of Universals
• The Problem of Appearance and Reality
• The Problem of Unity and Diversity
• The Problem of Change and Permanence
• The Problem of Causality
• The Problem of Mind-Body Interaction
• The Problem of Freedom and Determinism
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Ontology
• Ontology deals with the study of the nature of
reality: what is it, how many “realities” are
there, what are its properties, etc.
• The word is derived from the Greek terms
on, which means “reality” and
logos, which means “study of.”
• Atheists generally believe that there is a single
reality which is material and natural in nature.
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Theology
• Theology is the study of gods — does a god
exist, what a god is, what a god wants, etc.
• Every religion has its own theology because its
study of gods, if it includes any gods, will
proceed from specific doctrines and traditions
which vary from one religion to the next.
• Since atheists don't accept the existence of
any gods, they don't accept that theology is
the study of anything real.
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Universal Science
• The branch of “universal science” is the search for
“first principles” — things like the origin of the
universe, fundamental laws of logic and
reasoning, etc.
• For theists, the answer to this is almost always
"god" and, moreover, they tend to argue that
there can be no other possible answer. Some
even go far as to argue that the existence of
things like logic and the universe constitute
evidence of the existence of their god.
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Epistemology
• Theory of Knowledge
• Greek words, episteme = knowledge, and
logos = study
• Epistemology = Study of Knowledge
• Branch of philosophy which is concerned with
posing, reflecting and examining questions
related to knowledge or knowing.
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• Epistemology is an umbrella term used to
describe the study of philosophical problems
underlying theories of knowledge.
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Epistemology attempts to answer important
questions such as:
• Is knowledge possible or is it just belief?
• Is science truly objective and beyond doubt?
• Are there things we cannot doubt?
• How much evidence is needed for us to be
certain?
• Can we trust our senses?
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What is knowledge?
Traditionally, there are three different types of
knowledge:
• Practical knowledge: knowledge that is skills-based,
e.g. being able to drive or use a computer
• Knowledge by acquaintance: knowledge that doesn’t
involve facts but familiarity with someone or an
objects,
e.g. I know my mother, I know what an apple looks like
• Factual knowledge: knowledge based on fact, e.g. I
know that the sun rises every morning – I know it is
true.
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What is scepticism?
• To be sceptical about something is to doubt or
have reservations about a truth or a particular
statement.
• Scepticism is also a philosophical movement.
• There are several forms of scepticism but they
are all based on philosophical doubt:
– to what extent can we trust our senses?
– What can we know for certain?
– Can we know anything at all?
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Rationalism
• Rationalism is the view that knowledge does
not come from the senses but from reason.
• As we have seen from the arguments of
scepticism, senses can deceive us and
therefore cannot be trusted to give us true
and certain knowledge.
• Rationalists argue that instead we should
derive knowledge only from our reason and
logical abilities
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Empiricism
• Empiricism is the view that knowledge is
derived from our senses.
• For example, I know what a red circle is
because I have experienced through my
senses the colour red and the shape of a
circle.
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Axiology
• Values Theory= Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram
– Logic- TruthSatyam
– Ethics- Good Shivam
– Aesthetics- Beautiful Sundaram
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Philosophy of research ethics
(SPA)
• Plato (427 - 347BCE) was a student of Socrates
and in his writing transmits Socrates’
teachings. The main thrust of this comes in
his middle and later periods, the Republic
being the most important.
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• Plato highlights virtue which he equates with
knowledge, to be virtuous is to know the good
which is changeless, immaterial, transcendent
and absolute.
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• Aristotle (384 - 322BCE) was Plato’s pupil. His
writings on ethics have as their basis the
search for the chief human good. This, he
argues, comes from the ethical virtues that
come from human reasoning. Each virtue is
the pivotal point between excess and defect.
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• Virtues are not just rules by which we live but
should encompass the whole of a person’s
philosophy of life and determine concerns,
desires, emotions and perceptions of virtually
everything as well as governing the actions
that a person takes
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Axiology
• Study of Problems related to values
• Values Theory: Logic, Ethics and Aesthectics
• Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram
1. Logic- Truth
2. Ethics- Good Shivam
3. Aesthetics- Beautiful Sundaram
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Axiology:
Study of Problems related to values
Satyam Truth Logic
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Shivam Good Ethics
Sundaram Beauty Aesthetics

Ethics
• Study of problems related to goodness
• What is good and what is not
• Study of right or wrong
• Proper conduct led to harmony (Plato)
• Desires of people tends to conflict than to
coincide
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Ethical dilemma
• How to reconcile two or more conflicting
preferences ?
• Dilemma is as old as human civilization
• Dilemma evidenced in the Indian as well
western civilizations’ books
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Excerpts from book ‘Republic’
• Republic was written by Plato
• Definitions of justice
• The Socratic Method: Dialogue on Justice
between Socrates & Thrasymachus
(From Plato, The Republic, Book 1, ca. 390 BCE)
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What is justice?
Cephalus: Justice is repaying debts
Polemarcus: Justice is doing good to your friends
and harm to your enemies
Thrasymachus : Justice is the interest of the
stronger
justice as what is beneficial to the stronger (338c).
Might is right: Justice is different under different
political regimes according to the laws, which are
made to serve the interests of the strong (the ruling
class in each regime, 338e-339a).
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Socrates (requiring clarification)
• does it mean that justice is what the stronger
think is beneficial to them or what is actually
beneficial to them (339b)?
• And don’t strong rulers make mistakes and
sometimes create laws that do not serve their
advantage (339c)?
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Thrasymachus (pointing out) : the stronger are
really only those who do not make mistakes as
to what is to their advantage (340d)
Socrates (responds with a discussion of art or craft): its aim
is to do what is good for its subjects, not what is
good for the practitioner (341c).
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• Thrasymachus suggests that some arts, such as
that of shepherds, do not do this but rather aim
at the advantage of the practitioner (343c).
• He also adds the claim that injustice is in every
way better than justice and that the unjust
person who commits injustice undetected is
always happier than the just person (343e-
344c).
• The paradigm of the happy unjust person is the
tyrant who is able to satisfy all his desires (344a-
b).
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• Socrates (points out): the shepherd’s concern
for his sheep is different from his concern to
make money from the wool, which is
extraneous to the art (345c), and that no power
or art provides what is beneficial to itself
(346e).
• Socrates claims that the best rulers are
reluctant to rule but do so out of necessity:
they do not wish to be ruled by someone
inferior (347a-c).
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Types of Ethics
Not all happy with idealized ethics
• Practical Ethics
• Impractical Ethics
• New term coined: : Utilitarianism
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Utilitarianism
• Rational assessment and balancing of cost and
benefits of behaviour
• Proper behaviour= benefit cost
• Maximum Benefit , least cost
•
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Ethical dilemma in Indian Scriptures
• Ramayana
• Mahabharata
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The Mahabharata - the world in one
epic
• The Mahabharata provides guidance on this
troublesome ethical question.
“What is here is found elsewhere.
What is not here is nowhere.”
– The Mahabharata 1.56.34-45
We will draw upon the two central moral quandaries
that are elaborated upon in the great epic.
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1. Arjuna’s famous dilemma
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Arjuna’s famous dilemma
• Pandava and the Kaurava armies line up
against each other in Kurukshetra.
• Upon seeing his kinsmen on the other side of
the battlefield, Arjuna lays down his famous
bow – the Gandiva
• He refuses to engage in battle.
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• Krishna, his charioteer, first tries to reason
with Arjuna.
• When that does not work, Krishna resorts to
his authority as God and impresses upon
Arjuna that his dharma is to be a
warriorwhether he likes it or not. He cannot
escape his dharma and he must fulfil it. Arjuna
has to be a warrior for what is right and just.
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2. Bhima and Duryodhana face off
• The second moral quandary in the
Mahabharata is more prolonged and even
more troubling.
• As the battle wears on, Krishna uses
underhand tactics to help the Pandavas kill
key Kaurava warriors one by one.
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• Krishna doubts that Bhima will be able to
prevail upon a warrior as mighty as
Duryodhana.
• Hence, Bhima will need some sort of dodge.
• Krishna indicates as much to Arjuna, who slaps
his left thigh.
• Bhima gets the hint and smashes his mace
into Duryodh ..
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is this foul move justified? Is Krishna’s
repeated trickery justified?
“Krishna firmly believes that once you make the
fateful decision to go to war, you must win at any
cost. As he sees it, the Pandavas’ cause is just, and
once the war begins the only thing that matters is
victory…”
‘The Difficulty of Being Good: The Subtle Art of
Dharma (2009) book by Gurcharan Das
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History of ethics in modern times
• Francis Bacon publishes The Novum Organon,
in which he argues that scientific research
should benefit humanity (year 1620)
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Galileo (1632)
• Galileo Galilea publishes his Dialogue on Two World
Systems, in which he defends a heliocentric theory of
the solar system, a view that contradicted the Catholic
Church’s position that the Earth does not move but
that the Sun moves around it.
• In 1633, Galileo appeared before an inquisitor from the
Catholic Church.
• He refused to withdrew his views and was sentenced
to house arrest for the remainder of his life.
• The Church banned his book.
• In 1992, 359 years after Galileo’s arrest, Pope John Paul
II formally apologized for its treatment of Galileo.
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The Royal Society of London (1752)
• The Royal Society of London institutes peer
review procedures for articles submitted to
The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London.
• The Philosophical Transactions, the world’s
first scientific journal, was first published in
1665.
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Edward Jenner (1796)
Edward Jenner inoculates eight-year-old James
Phipps with fluid from a cowpox pustule to
immunize him against smallpox.
The English doctor, learned from a milkmaid that
she believed herself protected from smallpox
because she had caught cowpox from a cow.
Cowpox is an uncommon illness in cattle, usually
mild, that can be spread from a cow to humans via
sores on the cow. During an infection, dairy workers
may have pustules on their hands.
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Charles Babbage (1830)
• He publishes Reflections on the Decline of
Science in England, And Some of Its Causes, in
which he argues that many of his colleagues
were engaging in dishonest research practices,
including fabricating, cooking, trimming, and
fudging data
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Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
(1856)
• They publish The Origin of Species, which proposes a theory
of evolution of living things by natural selection.
• The book generates a great deal of controversy because it
proposes that human beings were not created by God (as
most religions claimed) but descended from apes.
• He waited over twenty years to publish his ideas because he
knew they would meet with strong opposition and he wanted
to ensure that he could back up his claims with evidence and
arguments.
• George Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory after reading
a paper by Alfred Wallace that proposed a theory similar to
Darwin’s, so that Darwin could establish precedence. Instead,
Darwin shared credit with Wallace.
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Louis Pasteur (1885)
• He administers an experimental rabies vaccine
to nine-year-old Joseph Meister without
testing it on animals first.
• Pasteur was not a licensed physician and could
have been prosecuted had the vaccine failed.
• The legalities were forgotten and Pasteur
instead became a national hero.
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Giuseppe Sanarelli (1897)
• injects the yellow fever bacteria into five
patients without their consent.
• All the patients developed the disease and
three died.
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Nuremberg Code
• A well-known chapter in the history of research with
human subjects opened on Dec. 9, 1946, when an
American military tribunal opened criminal proceedings
against 23 leading German physicians and administrators
for their willing participation in war crimes and crimes
against humanity.
• Among the charges were that German physicians
conducted medical experiments on thousands of
concentration camp prisoners without their consent.
• Most of the subjects of these experiments died or were
permanently crippled as a result.
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• As a direct result of the trial, the Nuremberg
Code was established in 1948, stating that “The
voluntary consent of the human subject is
absolutely essential,” making it clear that subjects
should give consent and that the benefits of
research must outweigh the risks.
• Although it did not carry the force of law, the
Nuremberg Code was the first international
document which advocated voluntary
participation and informed consent.
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References
• https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/mahabharata-lessons-to-
handle-ethical-dilemma-that-indian-stocks-
present/articleshow/70431413.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&ut
m_campaign=cppst
• https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Socratic_Method.html
• https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl201/modules/Philosophers/Plato/plato_justice.html
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