Unit v Policy frameworks on education: pre independent India full notes in english

1 | D r . C . T h a n a v a t h i V . O . C . C . E .
UNIT V
POLICY FRAMEWORKS ON EDUCATION:
PRE INDEPENDENT INDIA
5.1. Education in India during the Vedic Period
5.1.1. Introduction
The system of education which was developed during the Vedic period is termed the
Vedic system of education. The administration and organization of education remained
almost the same, throughout the Vedic period, but with the advancement of time, knowledge,
art, and skills, its curriculum and teaching methods underwent a change. The main features of
the Vedic system of education may be summarized in the following sequence.
The most important contribution of ancient India not only for India but also for the
world is in the field of education. It may also be remembered that education is not an abstract
term. It is manifested in the cultural economic, individual, philosophical, scientific, social,
and spiritual advancement. In other words, education is the means for developing the mind
for the betterment of the individual and society. Seen from this perspective, the following
views of great scholars and thinkers deserve mention.
5.1.2. Definition
Albert Einstein:- “We owe a lot to the Indians who taught us how to count without which no
worthwhile scientific discovery could have made.”
Mark Twain, an American Writer:- “India is the cradle of the human race. Most valuable and
the most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured up in India only.”
Lancelot Hagen, in his publication Mathematics for the Millions:- “There has been no more
revolutionary contribution than the one which the Hindus made when they invented zero.”
5.1.3. Sources of the Vedic Age Education: Vedic Literature
No study of the source of Indian culture, education, philosophy, and thought is
complete without an adequate acquaintance and understanding of the ‘Vedic Literature’. The
Vedic literature represents the most important and intrinsic part of the life of the Indian
people.
The Vedic literature consists of the following;
1. Four Vedas
2. Six Vedangas
3. Four Upvedas
4. Four Brahmanas

5. One hundred and eighty Upanishads
6. Six systems of philosophy
7. Bhagwad Gita
8. Three Smritis
5.1.4. Administration and Finance of Education
i. Free education in Ancient India:-
In ancient India, teaching was considered to be a holy duty which a Brahman was
bound to discharge irrespective of consideration of the fee teacher were expected to devote
their lives to the cause of teaching in the missionary spirit of self-sacrifice, and the society
laid down the principal that both the public and state should help the learned teachers and
educational institutions very liberally. Society realized that “Vidyadana” or the gift in the
cause of education was to be the best of gifts, possessing higher religious merit than even the
gift of land. On the occasion of religious feats, students and teachers were invited and
donations were given liberally.
ii. Sources of Income: Donation, Dan, Guru Dakshina:
The kings, emperors, and affluent sections of the society voluntarily gave donations in
the form of land, animals, grains, clothes, utensils, money from these gurugulas. The students
begged alms from society to meet the day-to-day needs of the gurugulas. The third source of
income of the gurugulas was guru Dakshina. On the completion of education, students paid
guru Dakshina according to individual volition which could be land, animals, grains, clothes,
or money.
iii. No state control on education:-
Rulers of the country had very little directly to do with education. It was a private
affair of the people managed entirely by Brahmans.
5.1.5. Main Features of Vedic Education
i. High status of Teachers:- Teachers were a highly honored class-honored by even
kings. Kings rose from thrones to receive great teachers such as Narada, Vashishtha,
and Vishwamitra.
ii. Teachers as Parents: - Teachers behaved as parents to their pupils and pupils behaved
like members of the teachers’ family. The attitude of the pupil was to be one of
complete submission.
iii. Residential Schools:- Teachers and pupils lived together and so identified themselves
with one another.

iv. Immediate aim:- Vocational: The immediate aim of education, however, was to
prepare the different casts of people for their actual needs of life.
v. Individual teaching:- Pupils were tough individually not en masse by the class method
vi. Method of study:- The method of the study consisted of listening to the teacher,
reflection on what has been listened to, and its constant revision and discussion.
vii. Role of Travel in Education:- Travel was regarded as necessary to give a finish tough
to education.
viii. Sanskrit as the Medium of Instruction:- The medium of instruction was Sanskrit.
ix. Self-control and Self–Discipline:- It was considered to be the best discipline.
However, Corporal punishment was not altogether ruled out.
x. Widespread education of women:- In the earlier Vedic, and Upanishad times, girls
were free to go through the “Upanayana’ ceremony, live a life of celibacy, studied
Vedas, Vedangas, and other subjects along with their brother pupils.
xi. Ultimate aim of education-self-Realization:- The ultimate aim of education in ancient
India was not knowledge as preparation of life in this world or for life beyond but for
complete realization of self-for liberation of the soul from fetters of life, both present,
and future. That knowledge was real, which led to emancipation-led from unreality to
reality, from darkness to light, from death to immortality.
5.1.6. Curriculum:-
The curriculum of education during the Vedic period was divided into two forms –
Materialistic, Spiritual.
i. Material Curriculum
It included language, grammar, numerology, agriculture, cattle rearing, arts(music and
dance), skills (weaving, dyeing, woodwork, metalwork, craft), economics, politics, geology,
physiology, snake science, logic, astrology, medical science, military science, exercise,
exercise, gurukul organization.
ii. Spiritual Curriculum
It included education of Vedic literature, theology and ethics, and training in activities
like control of sense organs, religion-based conduct, mode of worship, evening prayers, etc.
5.1.7. Methods of Teaching
Three methods of teaching were being practiced during the Vedic period. The first
method was oral and the second was based on thinking and reflection.
i. Oral Method: In the oral method, the students were to memorize the mantras and
Richayas (verses of Rigveda) in order that there might not be changed wrongly

and they might remain preserved in the original forms. In the oral method correct
pronunciation was specially emphasized. It is meant for average students.
ii. Thinking Method: Through this an attempt was made to preserve the Veda
mantras and Richyas (Vedic Verses).
iii. Manas (reflection) method:
It was a higher method of teaching than thinking. Mantras were developed and
preserved in one’s own mind. This method was used to encourage intelligent students by
guiding them to make research.
5.1.8. Aims, Ideals, and Objectives of Vedic Education
i. Ultimate objective as moksha or self-realization:- Ancient Indians believed that
education should prepare an individual in such a way as to prepare him to attain
the objective of liberation, i.e. to be one with the almighty and to be free from the
cycle of births and deaths.
ii. Infusion of Piety and Religiousness:- In ancient India religion played a prominent
part. Education aimed at the infusion of piety and religiousness in the minds of the
pupils.
iii. Education for worldliness:- Vocational aim:- Happiness in other world was given
more stress than the happiness in this world. This world according to them, was
unreal and full of fetters. The highest wisdom was a release from these betters.
iv. Character formation:- Education must from character. Mere intellect was not of
worth if the person was devoid of not much morality. Morality or the right
behavior was the higher “Dharma”. Education was regarded as a means of
inculcating values such as strict obedience to elders, truthfulness, honesty, and
temperance.
v. Development of all-round personality:- Ancient Indians believed that personality
should be developed through education. Personality was developed through the
following methods:-
(a) Self-restraint
(b) Self-confidence
(c) Self-respect
(d) Discrimination and judgment
vi. Stress on Social duties:- A student was not to lead self-centered life. He was to
perform his duties as a son, as a husband, as a father, and many other capacities
conscientiously and efficiently in the society. His wealth was not for his own sake

as for his family, he must be hospitable and charitable. All professions laid stress
on civil responsibilities.
vii. Promotion of Social Efficiency and Welfare:- The promotion of social efficiency
and welfare was an equally important aim of education. Education was not
imported simply for the sake of culture or for the purpose of developing mental
powers but for the purpose of training every member of society in the profession
which he expected to follow. Society had accepted the theory of division of work
which was later on governed by the principle of heredity. Each family trained its
children in its own profession. The purpose was to make each individual society
efficient.
viii. Preservation and promotion of culture:- the preservation and promotion of
national culture and heritage was also stressed. “The services of the whole
community were conscripted for the purpose of the preservation of the Vedic
literature. Every person had to learn at least a portion of his sacred literacy
heritage.” A section of Brahman had to devote the whole of their life to the cause
of learning to commit the Vedas to memory in order to ensure preservation.
5.1.9. Women Education
The Vedas give a very honorable and respectable status to women. They were eligible
for higher education for the study of the Vedas and the performance of administrative and
other important jobs mostly performed by men even today. Boys should go to the schools
meant for boys and girls should go to the schools where there are women teachers. The
women should have the opportunity to attain knowledge of the Vedas from all four concerns.
5.1.10. Role of Mother in Education
A mother should impart education to her children so as to broaden their horizons. At
this stage, good manners are to be taught so that the children behave properly with the elders
and in assemblies.
5.1.11. Role of Teachers
During the Vedic period, very scholarly, self-studious, religious and persons of good
character could become teachers. Besides being scholarly they used to have extreme self-
control. They occupied the highest place in society and were established as gods.
Duties of teachers towards students:
i. To make arrangements for student’s lodging, food, and clothing, etc.
ii. To look after the health of the students and arrange treatment in case of falling
ill.

iii. To compulsorily impart education in language, religion, and ethics.
iv. To teach students good conduct and build their character.
v. To inspire students towards activities work doing and prevent
5.1.12. Role of Students
During the Vedic period, only unmarried students were admitted to gurugulas. The
students were called Brahmachari. They had to observe celibacy, eat simple and pure food,
wear simple clothes, and abstain from intoxications.
Students’ Duties towards teachers
i. To look after the cleanliness of gurugal and its complete arrangements.
ii. To clean the teacher's residence and arrange for the teacher’s worship.
iii. To seek alms for teachers and other residents of the gurukul.
iv. To massage the feet of the teacher before going to bed.
v. To abide by the orders of the teacher with devotion.
5.1.13. Teacher – Student Relationship
During the Vedic period, the teachers and students enjoyed a cordial relationship. The
teachers considered the students as their sons and the students regarded teachers as their
fathers. Affection flowed from above and devotion steamed from below.
Teachers as Spiritual as well as Intellectual Guide
Teachers occupied a pivotal position in the Vedic System of education. The teacher
was a parent surrogate (Parent Substitute), a facilitator of learning, exemplar and inspirer,
confident, detector friend and philosopher moral educator, reformer, evaluator, character and
personality builder, importer of knowledge and wisdom, and above all a guru, religious and
spiritual guide. The relationship between the teachers and the pupil was regarded as filial in
character. The teacher was the spiritual father of his pupils. In addition to imparting
intellectual knowledge to them, he was also morally responsible. He was always to keep a
guard over the conduct of his pupils. He must let them know what to cultivate and what to
avoid. He must instruct them as to how to sleep and as to what food they may take and what
they may reject. He should advise them as to the people whose company they should keep
and as to which of the villages and localities they should frequent. During the Vedic period,
learning was transmitted orally from one generation to another. Great importance was
attached to the proper accent and pronunciation in the Vedic recitation and these could be
correctly learned only from the lips of a properly qualified teacher. The spiritual solution
depended almost entirely upon the proper guidance of a competent teacher.

5.1.14. Process of Instruction
There were three steps in instruction:
1. Sravana 2. Manana 3. Nididhyasana.
Sravana is listening to words texts as they uttered by the teacher.
Manana is the process of deliberation or reflection of the topic taught.
Nididhyasana represents the highest stage.
5.1.15. Admission and Evaluation System
There seems to be no direct reference available to spell out the methodology followed
by the Acharya to judge the adequacy of knowledge of his pupils. Yaskas and Sayana,
famous commentators on the Vedas, have inferred from the Rig Veda hymn that the students
were given three grades as under:
1. Maha Prazanan grade:- Students of very high ability.
2. Madhyama Prazanan grade:- Students of high ability.
3. Alpa Prazanan grade:- Students of low ability.
5.1.16. Autonomy of Educational Institutions
Teachers in the Vedic period were autonomous in their work and they followed
various methods of admission and assessment. A teacher was the sole pedagogic authority to
decide whether the student was fit for admission and also to decide whether he had completed
his studies.
5.1.17. Studentship
There is a long hymn in the ‘Atharva Veda’ describing the ceremony pertaining to the
studentship. The initiation ceremony was called Upanayana which lasted three days. It laid
down the foundation of planned life. The pupil owed his first birth-physical to his parents and
the second birth spiritual to his teacher. The rite of Upanayana was meant to purify body and
mind and to make one fit for receiving education.
After ‘Upanayana’ the pupil entered into a state of ‘Brahmacharya’ indicating that it
was a mode of life and a system of education. The ‘Brahmachari’ as the aspirant for
education was now called lived according to prescribed regulations, i.e., physical discipline
as well as a spiritual discipline.
5.1.18. Discipline
According to recent researches, the following disciplines were included in the
curriculum in the graded forms in accordance with the stages of education.
1. Anthropology
2. Astronomy

3. Economics
4. Epistemology
5. Eschatology
6. Ethnology
7. Geology
8. Human eugenics
9. Mathematics
10. Military Science
The system of education was well-organized. It was suited to the needs of society
education was considered the greatest gift in ancient India. It was aimed at the development
of the personality of an individual to his maximum extent. Education helped in the realization
of spiritual and moral values, besides preparing for worldly pursuits. It was freely available to
all those who wanted the relations between teachers and the pupils were based on love and
affection. They were very cordial and intimate.
5.1.19. Conclusion
In retrospect, it may be said that the Vedic system of education was the best system of
education in the contemporary world but from the point of view of the present Indian society
some of its aspects are worth adopting, while some are to be given up.
5.2. EDUCATION DURING BUDDHIST PERIOD
5.2.1. Introduction
Buddhism was born in India and was started by Gautam Buddha who was an Indian
prince of the Sakya Dynasty of Kshatriyas. No doubt, many principles of ‘Hinduism’ are
included in ‘Buddhism’. It is also true that ‘Buddhism’ was the result of the prevailing
circumstance of life. Gautam Buddha taught the principle of a religion which was based on
the analysis of the actual problems of life. In fact, he gave a new form to the religion.
The monasteries were the centers of education during the Buddhist period. Besides
monasteries, there were no other organizations for imparting education. Only the Buddhists
could receive religious and other types of education. Other persons were deprived of this
facility. There was no place for Yajna in the Buddhist system. The Buddhist period in Indian
education roughly starts from 600 B.C and lasts for about 1200 years till 600A.D. During the
Vedic period education was mostly an individualistic effort whereas during the Buddhist
period institutional organization is one of the chief characteristics of education.
Buddhist education was based on the teaching of Gautam Buddha. These teachings
were so important that they remained a source of inspiration for the individual as well as

social development in India. The influence of Buddhist teachings can not be undermined even
during the later period.
5.2.2. Aims of Education
The chief aims of Buddhist education had been the following:-
i. Development of education:- The chief aim of Buddhist education was the all-around
development of a child’s personality. This included his physical, mental, moral, and
intellectual development.
ii. Formation of character:- During this period, in the organization of education, special
emphasis was laid on the formation of the character of the students. Student life was hard and
rigorous. They observed celibacy.
iii. Religious education:- In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education
was imparted through it. The chief aim of education was the propagation of religion and
inculcation of religious feelings and education served as a means to achieve salvation or
nirvana.
iv. Preparation for life:- In this system of education, there was a provision for imparting
wordily and practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students
entered normal life they may be able to earn their livelihood.
v. Physical Development: According to Buddha, good health helps a man to escape from
bodily suffering. So he gave importance to physical development.
vi. Development of knowledge: To achieve Nirvana, they emphasized the development of
true knowledge. In the Buddhist period, the practical knowledge of the material world and of
the four noble truths were regarded as true knowledge.
vii. Education of social behaviour: The Buddhist religion is a supporter of human welfare.
This is the reason that too much emphasis was placed upon compassion and kindness.
viii. Preservation and Development of human culture: Buddhist religion emphasizes the
preservation of human culture as a whole. For that, they encourage the study of other
religions, cultures, and philosophies.
ix. Character formation: They gave too much importance to self-control compassion and
kindness and those who practice, these ideals possess good character.
x. Vocational Development: To overcome the sufferings of hunger, education of art, skills,
and vocation is necessary.
xi. Education of Buddhist religion: Students were trained in the eightfold path namely-Right
view, Right resolve, Right occupation, Right speech, Right behavior, Right effort, Right
contemplation, and Right meditation to achieve salvation

5.2.3. Principle or Four noble truths of Buddhism
Buddha was primarily an ethical teacher and reformer, not a metaphysician. The
message of his enlightenment points to man the way of life that leads beyond suffering. The
four noble truths are:-
(1) There is suffering.
(2) There is the cause of suffering (Dukhasamaudaya).
(3) There is the cessation of suffering (Dukhanirodha).
(4) There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering (Dukhanirodh- marg).
5.2.4. Pabbaja Ceremony
Pabbaja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbaja means going
out. According to this ceremony, the students after being admitted to a monastery had to
renounce all their worldly and family relationships. An individual belonging to any caste
could be admitted to a monastery and after being admitted he did not belong to any caste. For
pabbaja ceremony, the individual had to get his head fully shaved and put on yellow clothing.
In this shape, he was presented before the presiding Bhikshu. On presentation, this individual
would pray for admission to the monastery. On his prayer the head Bikshu would administer
three basic advice:
(1) I take refuse with Budha.
(2) I take refuge with religion.
(3) I take refuge with the order.
The aspirant for admission used to pronounce these devices very distinctly. Then his
admission was permitted. On being admitted the individual was called a Sharman.
5.2.5. Upasampada Ceremony
After pabbaja the Buddhist monk had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony. This
ceremony was different from pabbaja ceremony. It was after receiving education for twelve
years, that is at the age of twenty years, Upasampada ceremony was performed. The Sharman
has to present himself in front of all other monks of the monastery. One could be admitted for
this ceremony only when the majority of the monks voted in favor of the same. After this
ceremony, the Sharman was regarded as a full-fledged member of the monastery. On this
occasion, all his worldly and family relationships ended.
5.2.6. Curriculum
In Buddhist education primary, higher and Bhikshu education were organized in
Maths and Vihars and as they were under the control of the Buddhist Sangha.

i. Curriculum of Primary Education
The duration of primary education was 6 years. Reading, writing, five different
sciences namely Morphology, Astronomy, Medicine, logic, and spirituality were taught.
ii. Curriculum of Higher Education
The duration of higher education was generally of 12 years. During this period a
general knowledge of grammar, religion, astrology, Ayurved, and philosophy was imparted
to students. Special education included Pali, Prakit, and Sanskrit languages along with their
grammar and literature and such subjects as astrophysics, cosmology, jurisprudence, political
science, economics, arts, skills, vocations, architecture, Buddhist, Jain, and Vedic religions,
theology, logic.
iii. Curriculum of Bhikshu Education
The duration of Bhikshu education was 8 years but that Bhikshu who intended to
acquire higher knowledge in Buddhist religion and philosophy could continue their education
further.
Both worldly and religious education is concerned initially imparted but at a higher
level, specialization in any of the fields may be taken.
1. Worldly Curriculum
Reading, writing, mathematics arts, skills, and vocational education
2. Religious curriculum
For General students, Buddhist, Jain, and Vedic religions were imparted. For the
Bhikshu education, they had to study Buddhist literature namely Tripitaka, Sulta, Vinay, and
Avidhamma pita.
5.2.7. Method of Teaching
Buddhist education aimed at purity of character. Like Vedic education, it was training
for moral character rather than psychological development of the students. One has to attain
the stage of Bodhisattva. Mental and moral development was emphasized. Following were
the methods:-
1. Verbal education: Through the art of writing had been well developed up to the Buddhist
period yet, due to shortage and no availability of writing materials, verbal education was
prevalent as it was in the Vedic age. The teacher used to give lessons to the novices who
learned them by heart. The teacher used to put questions on the learning the lesson by heart.
2. Discussion: In order to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it was
necessary to improve the power of discussion. This was also needed to satisfy the critics and
opposing groups and establish one’s own cult. Thus, rules were framed for discussion.

3. Prominence of logic: The importance of discussion encouraged logic in the Buddhist
period. The controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was
also useful in the development of mental power and knowledge.
4. Tours: The main of the Buddhist monks was to propagate Buddhism. Hence some
Acharyas like Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave importance to tours for
educating people.
5. Conference: Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of the month in
the Buddhist sanghas. The monks of different sanghas assembled and put forward their
doubts freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such a conference.
6. Meditation in solitude: Some Buddhist monks were more interested in isolated spiritual
meditation in lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely
meditation that had fully renounced the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in the
sangha and had gained the efficiency for solitary medications.
5.2.8. Assembly of Learned People
At the beginning and close of every month learned people used to assemble together.
This type of assembly together was a very important part of Buddhist education. The purpose
of this assembly was to maintain the moral standards of all the monks because the total
education was based on morality. It was compulsory for all the monks to be present in this
assemble so much so that even ill monks used to try to attend it anyhow. If due to illness it
was not possible for the monk to come, then the assembly was held near his residence. This
assembly was quite democratic and it has an immense moral impact on all concerned.
5.2.9. The Nature of Mass Education
The monasteries or Buddha Vihars were the chief centers of learning and only the
Buddhist monks could be admitted to them for education. Thus there was no planned
arrangement for mass education as such during the period. It forms this position it would be
wrong to construct that the Buddhist monks were unmindful of the education of the people in
general. So at the time of begging alms, the monks used to remove the religious doubts of the
people through their interesting conversation or short and alp lectures. Thus the people, in
general, received moral and religious education from the monks.
5.2.10. Women Education
Women's education during the Buddhist period was at its lowest ebb, as the women
folk were despised in the sense that Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils.
So he had advised during his regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised
during his lifetime not to admit women in monasteries. But after some time due to the

insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had permitted about 500 women along with his
stepmother for admission in vihars with many restrictions and reservations.
5.2.11. Vocation Education
Vocation education was not ignored during the Buddhist system of education. The
monks of Vihar were taught spinning, weaving, and sewing in order that they meet their
clothing requirements. They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture
enabled them to build up new Vihars or repair the old ones. Similarly, the householders
following Buddhism but living outside Vihar were given training in different types of and
also earn their livelihood.
5.2.12. Discipline
Both teacher and students must follow the rules of Buddhist Sanghs Strictly.
Generally, twice a month teachers and students met at a specific place for introspection and to
confess. Corporal punishment was abhorred in that period.
3.2.13. Role of Teacher in Buddhist System
Buddhist philosophy admits the possibility of attaining peace here and now, though, it
starts with a pessimistic note. The teacher, therefore, need not have any cry of despair.
Bhikshus were the teacher. Buddhist viharas or monasteries have their methods of Imitation
and training for the apprentices. The preceptor must give his disciple, all possible intellectual
and spiritual help and guidance. There was mutual esteem between the teacher and the pupil.
Their relations were like father and son. The teacher was regarded as the spiritual father or
intellectual father of the student.
During the Buddhist period, the place of teachers in the scheme of education was very
important. There were the categories of teachers – Acharyas and Upadhyay. According to
Sutras Literature Acharya may admit according to his unfettered discretion, a number of
pupils, who would have to live with him at this house, for a minimum period of twelve years.
He would not accept any fees from the pupils under this instruction. The progress shown by
the pupil was the only factor that determined the continence of his apprenticeship.
Qualification of Teachers
1) 8 years of Bhikshu education after 12 years of higher education
2) to adopt Buddhism
3) life long celibacy
4) strict adherence to the Sangh discipline
These teachers had to make arrangements of boarding and food for their students,
impart knowledge to them and guide them to overcome worldly attachments.

Responsibility of Teacher
Both the teacher and the student were responsible for the monastery of the Buddhist
order. But regarding education, clothes, food, and residence of the student monk, the teacher
was wholly responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student
whenever he fell ill. The teacher used to bestow all the affection to his student and used to
educate him through lecture and question-answer method.
3.2.14. Student in Buddhist System of Education
The Buddhist system like the Brahmanical enjoins upon the pupil the duty of serving
this preceptor as a part of education. The pupils are to rise early in the morning from the bed
and give his teacher teeth-cleanser and water to rinse his mouth with; then, preparing a seat
for him, serve him rice- milk in rinse his mouth with; then, preparing as a seat for him, serve
him rice milk in a rinsed jug, and after his drinking it, wash the vessel and sweep the place.
Afterward, he is to equip him for his begging round by giving him fresh undergarments,
girdle, his two upper garments, and his alms- bowl rinsed and filled with water and then is to
dress and equip himself similarly if he wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too
far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants
to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near him. He is not to interrupt
his teacher in speaking, even if he makes a mistake. There were also rules for the expulsion
of a pupil by his teacher. In five cases a Saddhiviharika ought to be turned away; when he
does not feel great affection for his Upajjhaya, nor great inclination towards him, nor much
shame, nor great reverence, nor great devotion.
Students in the Buddhist period were termed as Shraman or Sumner. They had to
compulsorily reside in Maths and vihar. They had to get up early in the morning before
teachers and had to make arrangements for their morning prayers. Students unable to pay fees
for higher education had to contribute manual service.
The daily routine of Students (Diuchariya)
The student was expected to serve his teacher with all devotion. On rising in the
morning the student will arrange everything for the daily routine of the teacher. He will cook
his food and clean his clothes and utensils. Whatever he acquired through begging alms, he
would place before the teacher. The student had to prepare himself to receive education at
any time whenever the teacher required him.

Expulsion of pupils
The teacher of a Buddhist monastery was empowered to expel any student on a charge
of misconduct or any type of serious disobedience. However, the student was expelled only
when it was definitely ascertained that he lacked faith and respect for the teacher and the
other things related to the sanctity of the monastery. After the death of the teacher or when
the teacher changed his religion or left the monastery for elsewhere, the students also
deserted the monastery. The education of the concerned students ended then and there.
5.2.15. Teacher- Taught Relationship
Teachers were like father figures to students. They generally looked after the
administration of maths and vihar and organized teaching work while students carry out the
different tasks as advised by their teachers.
Conclusion
In retrospect, we may say that the foundation of the modern Indian system of
education was laid down in the Vedic system of education but the complete structure that is
central administration, school education, group teaching, was laid in the Buddhist system of
education.
5.3. JAINISM PERIOD
Jainism is a much more ancient faith than Buddhism. Jinas or Tirthankars are
founders of Jainism. There were twenty-three Tirthankaras before Mahaveera, who was a
contemporary of Gautama Buddha (6th century BCE) and is credited with the formulation of
a sect known as Jainism. Jainas laid great stress on the right knowledge and right conduct for
self-realization. Great ascetic teachers of Jainism like Kondakunda, Samantabhadra,
Pujyapada, Jinasena, Puspadanta, and Somadeva, etc. hailed from Karnataka, and their works
in Sanskrit and Prakrit are studied throughout India. Jainism, unlike Buddhism, continues to
flourish over centuries in this land.
Jainism is divided into two sects of Swetambara and Digambara. The Swetambara
monks wear white and Digambara ascetics who practice extreme renunciation have to discard
even the last piece of cloth or the barest necessity of life, to overcome the worldly binding.
Similarly, sallekhana or death by observing religious injunction of fast unto death is not only

permitted in Jainism but also held in high esteem. Individuals who have died observing
sallekhana are remembered in special epitaphs known as Nishiki or nisadi stones.
Method of Learning
The method of learning various subjects was traditional, i.e., memorizing repeating,
and reproducing. Vada or discussion formed the main platform in the Jaina system and
training was given in oratory. Most of the famous preceptors were great orators and
established the supremacy of Jainism over other sects by arguing, disputing, and discussing
logically. Tarkasasatra or science of logic occupied a prominent place in the Jaina syllabus.
Titles like Vadikolahala (who causes confusion among arguers) Prativadi Bhayangkara
("terror to counter arguers") Vadi-raja (king among disputers) Vadibha Simha (lion to
elephant-like arguers) were given by the king to the scholars in the assembly of the learned.
Later, such titles were conferred to established disputants of other faiths as well.
Jaina teacher and disciples
Jaina teacher and disciples
Jaina students devotedly listen to an ascetic teacher under the shade of a tree. A Jaina
guru was the most respected in the Jaina community and we have a good deal of pictorial
evidence. Sculptures depicting teachers imparting lessons are several. Stools (tavanekolu) to
keep the palm-book ready are depicted in numerous sculptures. The self-study was given due
importance and a student is shown as reading a palm-leaf book with great attention. In one
sculpture, a mendicant is studying palm-leaf books under a tiled roof with an oil lamp.

Education of Jaina Ladies
Education of Jaina Ladies
Sallekhana samadhis or nishadi stone memorials erected for the departed revered
illustrate the teachers in preaching pose with palm-leaf texts in hand. The Jaina monasteries
invariably had libraries of palm-leaf books and these included treatises on many secular
subjects besides Jaina agamas or holy texts. There were texts of other languages and regions
as well. When we realize that a manuscript of Bilhana's Vikramankadevacharita depicting life
and achievements of Chalukya king Vikramaditya of Karnataka was found in a Jaina library
of Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) and a copy of Pampa's Adipurana in Ara (Bihar), we could visualize
the length and breadth of the country these books traveled in ancient times. They are also
witnessing the care and attention they received for preservation over centuries. Perhaps many
more old and rare manuscripts are stored in the libraries of well-known Jaina monasteries.
But these are not easily available to scholars who are of non-Jaina faith.
The Jaina monastic life was well organized and an officer known as pravajyadayaka
selected student-ascetics after careful examination. Family backgrounds, educational and
religious leanings were considered. After getting admission, a supervisor, known as the
niryapaka kept a watch on the behavior of each and every student. Wrongdoers were
admonished in time and waywardness punished. Rigorous training and study awaited the
incumbents. They had to make their own arrangements for day-to-day needs and beg for

food. Spicy food was to be avoided. The training was given to restrain basic instincts like
anger, joy, and sorrow and show equanimity to all creatures under all circumstances.
Besides food and shelter, books were distributed free in the Himalayas and it is likely
that medical instruction was also imparted at the free hospitals attached. Hospitals big and
small were attached to Jaina mathas where sick cattle and birds were also treated besides
human beings. Jainism stood for compassion towards all living beings (sarvajeevidayapara),
and youngsters developed this trait early in life.
The role of the merchant community in the promotion and spread of Jainism is
significant. They toured the entire subcontinent and beyond, in caravans (sarthavaha) built
hospices along trade routes. They provided transport and protection to sadhus and sadhvis
and received religious instruction gratefully. They patronized several shrines and mathas and
gave hefty donations of land and cash for the upkeep and maintenance of basadis, orchards,
tanks, inns, and wells. All passersby folk benefited by these charitable deeds, irrespective of
caste or creed. The trading class knew several languages and scripts and mastered accounting.
Their grants helped the Jaina system of education and there was no dearth of funds at any
time.
Concept of Values
The escape of the Jiva from matter is liberation according to Jain Philosophy. In Jain,
Philosophy liberation is conceived of two kinds bhavamaksha (initial stage) or Jivan Mukti
and Dravyamoksha (or sidhashila stage). According to the Jaina system, sanvar and nirjara
are the means of achieving moksha. Bhava Sanvar negative love, hatred, and attachment.
Following this, the entry of matter is stopped. This is called Dravya Sanvar. The Jaina system
has suggested the following way of obstructing the entry of karma: five external (smitian)
means of stopping Karmas e.g., jealousy, Bhasha, etc. to interrupt the conjunction of karma
and self (Guptiyan).
Panch Mahavira e.g., Ahinsa, etc., Karma, to embellished twelve feelings or
anupreksas e.g., Anitya, Sansara, etc. Parish capable of suffering for the destruction of karma
by staying on the religious path, charita (character). The destruction of old karma particles,
the seed of limitations is called Nirjara. It is essential to sacrifice bad qualities like attachment
etc. and to have Nididhyasana. This makes the mind flexible and pure and the Jiva can

recognize the ‘soul’ situated in its own body. With this, the person endeavoring is bereft of
his pain.
When in the affective state a feeling of Nirjara grows, it is called Bhavanirjara. When
these particles are automatically destroyed after enjoyment it is known as Avipaka or akarna
(Bhavanirjara). But if they destroyed even before enjoyment is finished it is called Savipaka.
This can be done through internal meditation Anasthna, limited diet, etc. external penances,
and through Remorse, humility, etc. internal penances. After bhavanirjara the actual
destruction of karma particles residing in the self is called dravya nirjara. Sanvar causes any
new flux of karma particles to stop Nirjala path to Moksha is Tri-ratna or three Jewels i.e.,
Right faith, Right knowledge, and Right character.
Aims of Education
The followers of Lord Mahaveer compiled a collection of his teachings in a book
form. This book has been divided mainly into two parts—Swetamber and Digamber.
Liberalism is implied in the Jaina system of education. A thing may have two or more
aspects. So to reach the right decision one should consider different aspects of a situation. So
it is not necessary that all the students should agree with the viewpoint of a teacher. At the
time of reaching a decision, a student should have the satisfaction that his views have been
entertained. Jainism stressed non¬violence. It teaches us that one should not hurt the feelings
of others even by one’s speech. This ideal if adopted will help us to achieve the aim of
education in the true sense of the term.
Jainism lays emphasis on penance i.e., mortification of the body. In order to achieve
any objective intense effort is required. Therefore, virtuous conduct on the part of teachers
and students was emphasized by Jainism. This system stressed five principles for virtuous
conduct. These principles are non-violence truth, non-stealing, Brahmacharya, and Giving
away of superfluous wealth to others. Jaina Karma theory stressed one’s deeds in life. One
should be hard working. Education should be work-oriented. If such efforts succeed, our
younger generation will then begin to have faith in work rather than in fate. Jain's system
recommended liberation as the ultimate aim of education. According to this system, liberation
is of two types i.e., Jivan Mukti, and the upper level is Dravya Mukti. Education should help
the student to do such karmas which leads towards Jivan Moksha, which again will lead

towards the higher level Dravya moksha. Thus this system stresses the social, economic,
moral, and spiritual aims of education.
Curriculum
Jaina system stressed that the Jiva has to face the consequences of its deeds. Its color,
physical beauty, age, and other senses are according to its deeds. Whatever one gets in his life
is the fruit of his own deeds not the grace of God. Hence Jaina curriculum includes those
subjects which lead students towards different actions or activities. And thus the Jaina
curriculum is activity-centered. Jainism accords a very high place to religious austerity
(penance). No person can be virtuous without restraint and non-violence. This is possible
only through good moral conduct. To save oneself from a sin a person should have control
over his mind, body, and speech.
A person dependent on others cannot practice his religion or duties in their true sense.
Thus one’s own actions have been emphasized. Therefore, education should provide such an
environment that is helpful in developing social and moral values in the students. The
ultimate end of education is to attain salvation. If it is possible to repel our attachment from
worldly pleasures many of our strong and unhealthy desires will disappear. Then we shall
devote ourselves to attaining salvation. As a result, one should have more faith in doing good
to others.
The ways suggested in Jainism to attain salvation will help us in achieving the aims of
education. True education liberates the soul from bondage. This aim can be achieved through
different subjects, co-curricular activities, and different cultural activities. Apart from this
Jaina curriculum also emphasized vocational education. For this education in different
vocations should be provided to the students. This will help in equipoising economic
conditions in the country and in developing manpower also. Thus Jaina's curriculum includes
social sciences, natural sciences, moral education, vocational education, and various co-
curricular activities and yoga exercises.
Methods of Teaching
The literal meaning of Jaina refers to a person who has overcome his sensual vices
and has obtained full control over his worldly desires. In this way, this system stressed
practical activities or one’s own experiences. Thus Jaina's system of education emphasized
experimental method and learning by doing method. Jaina's philosophy of education believes
that truth may be viewed from different angles. The teacher should try to establish co-

ordination in the views of the students for getting a thorough knowledge of the subject. Only
one view should not be imposed upon students.
Jaina system also emphasized liberalism in the concept ‘Anekant’. A true Jain is not
rigid on any particular viewpoint and does not insist on accepting his own line of thinking
during the process of argumentation. He believes that a thing may be approached in different
ways. Due to this disposition, a student is able to maintain a balance or equipoise in every
situation. Thus Jaina system emphasized the discussion method and maximized student
participation in the teaching-learning process. Jaina's system also emphasized group
activities. For this group project, self-control, sense of responsibility towards their nation
were stressed by the Jaina methods of teaching.
Educational methods should develop such an environment in the educational
institutions which is helpful in developing the Right understanding or true perception or
understanding of the whole situation, to provide Right knowledge about the existence of the
self, and to help in the character formation of the students. Jaina's system emphasized work-
oriented education. Hence education should be re-organized by vocationalizing it. Vocational
education must provide practical knowledge or work experience to the students. In this way,
education may become useful for life as it will help them in earning their living. Thus this
system emphasized socialized techniques, experiments, learning by doing, coordination, etc.
5.4. EDUCATION DURING ISLAMIC PERIOD
5.4.1. Introduction
During the medieval period, Muslim rulers started a new system of education which is
popularly known as the Maktab-Madarsha system Muslim system of education. Side by side
the old Pathashala system also continued for Hindu students. We shall discuss the Muslim
system of Education in detail. The period under review covers the system of education in
India from about the 10th century A.D. to the middle of the 18th century, i.e. before the
British rule.
5.4.2. Aims of Education
(a) Developing love for Muslim culture and religion.
(b) Enabling the individual for Islamic life.
(c) Preparing the students for the next world.
(d) Equipping the students for a vocation.
(e) Preparing individuals for running administration.
The main aim of Muslim education was to spread Islamic culture and religion.
1. Development of knowledge

By knowledge, they meant material knowledge and spiritual knowledge both, and by
spiritual knowledge, they meant the knowledge of Islam.
2. Spread of Islamic Culture & Islamic Religion
They emphasized the education of Islamic culture and Islamic religion since they
firmly believed in it.
3. Development of character and morality
They want to develop Islamic morality among the students. In case of any
misconduct, there was the provision of repentance on the basis of Islamic rules.
4. Loyalty to the Government
Since they are foreigners, they wanted to make Indian Loyal to the Government
through education.
5. Education of Arts, skills, and Vocations
Since almost all the Muslim rulers were great lovers of arts and crafts. They laid
emphasis on the education of arts and crafts. Simultaneously education of different vocations
was also organized which resulted in the economic growth of the country
5.4.3. Chief Characteristics of Muslim Education:-
(1) Patronage of the rulers: The rulers helped in the spread of education. They built
educational institutions and universities. They endowed them with the funds. The big
landlord also provided financial help for the spread of education. The rulers patronized the
men of learning.
(2) No state control: The rules neither claim any authority over the educational institutions
nor interfered with their management.
(3) Religion dominated education: In the words of S.N. MUKERJI, “The whole educational
system was saturated with the religious ideals which influenced the aim, the contents of the
study, and even the daily life of the pupils.” The pupils acquired knowledge as a religious
obligation.
(4) Countryside as the center of education: By and large, educational institutions flourished
in the countryside.
(5) Provision of various disciplines: Through education was primarily religion-oriented, it
included the study of many intellectual activities like mathematics, astronomy, grammar,
polity, and politics. Art and literature were also encouraged.
(6) Norms of conduct: Adequate stress was laid on well-defined norms of behavior, the
pattern of thought, building up the personality and character of the pupils.

(7) teacher-pupil relationship: In the Muslim period also the teacher was respected as during
the Brahmanic or Buddhist period. There was an intimate relationship between the teacher
and the pupil, although the practice of living with the teacher was not as common with the
Muslims as it was in the case of the Brahmanic and Buddhist periods.
(8) Learned teachers: Teachers took to teaching for the love of learning. They were held in
high esteem. Prof. S.N. Mukerji has observed, “Learning was prized for its own sake and as a
mark of the highest human development and teaching was never handicapped by examination
requirements.
(10) Individualized instructions: Since the number of students with the teacher was limited,
he paid individual attention to each student.
(11) Monitorial system: Although a teacher did not have many pupils to teach yet, still the
teacher would take the help of senior and advanced students to teach the younger or the
junior.
(12) Discipline: Punishments were quite severe. Truants and delinquents were caned on their
palms and slapped on their faces. A strange mode of punishment was to make the children
hold their ears by taking their hands from under their thighs while sitting on their tiptoes.
In the medieval period, discipline referred to obeying the teachers and compliance
with the rules of mastabas and madrasah. Corporal punishment was given and at the same
time, there was a provision of reward for disciplined students.
(13) Types of institutions: Primary education was imparted in ‘Maktabs’ and secondary and
high education in ‘Madrasahs’.
(14) Vocational education: Provision was also made for vocational, technical, and professional
education. Emperor Akbar took considerable interest in education as is evident from the
passage of from the ‘Ain-in-Akbar’. The passage makes interesting reading and provides
valuable information on the system of instruction, i.e., curriculum, methods of teaching, etc.
5.4.4. Chief features of Primary and Elementary Muslim Education
(1) Institution of primary education: Primary education was imparted through the ‘Maktab’
which were attached with mosque or were independent of the mosque ‘Khanquahs’ of the
saints also at some places served as centers of education. Several learned men also taught
students at their residences.
(2) Financing of the Maktabs: Most of the Maktabs were either patronized by rulers or had
endowments. They are dependent on the charity of the philanthropists.
(3) Management of the ‘Maktabs’: The ‘Maktabs’ were run under the guidance of the learned
‘Maulavis’. They were supposed to be very pious.

(4) Curriculum: Curriculum varied from place to place but the teaching of Alphabets and the
recitation of the Quran was almost compulsory. The students learned some portions of the
Quran by heart as this was considered essential to perform religious functions.
Muslim education in the medieval period was divided into two levels-primary education and
higher education.
The curriculum at the primary level
Knowledge of alphabets, 30th section of Quran, reading, writing, mathematics, letter
and application writing, and the way of conversation. Special practice in proper pronunciation
and good handwriting was given to children.
The curriculum at the higher level
The curriculum was divided into two categories namely-worldly and religious.
Worldly curriculum
Arabic and Persian languages and their Literature, Mathematics, Geometry, History,
Geography, Economics, Political Science, Astrology. Islamic law, Unani Medicine, and various
arts, skills, and vocations.
Religious curriculum
Quran, Islamic history, Islamic literature, Sufi literature, and Islamic law.
(5) Language: Arabic and Persian languages were mostly compulsory. For getting high
government posts, one had to learn these languages.
(6) Fees: There were several village schools where the students were required to pay their
instructions, not in cash but in kind.
(7) Orphanages: The state set up some Orphanages where the children received education free
of charge. Vast endowments were made for these orphanages.
(8) Age of admission: At the age of four years, four months, and four days, the ‘Maktab’
ceremony or ‘Bismillah’ was performed to indicate the beginning of the child. This was
considered as an auspicious moment for initiation or starting education. Good wishes were
offered to the child. ‘Surah-i-Iqra’ a chapter from the holy Quran was recited on this occasion.
(9) Education of sons of Nobles and Rulers: The Muslim nobles, as well as rulers, engaged
tutors to teach their children at home.
(10) ‘Wide-spread Maktabs’: Almost every village had at least, one ‘Maktab’. There were
several ‘Maktabs’ in town and cities.
(11) Curriculum and Mode of Instruction:
(i) During those days there were no printed books for beginners. Wooden books
(taktis) were used.

(ii) The Quran: After alphabets, words were taught to students
(iii) Stress on Calligraphy: beautiful and fine handwriting was an important element of
instruction.
(iv) Teaching of Grammar: Grammar was taught as it was considered very valuable in
teaching the languages.
(v) Religious Instruction: Instruction imparted in the ‘Maktabs’ was religious through
and through.
(vi) Books other than Quran: After the Quran, the ‘Gulistan’ and the ‘Bostan’ poems of
poet Firdausi were taken up.
(vi) ‘Paharas’: Students also learned ‘Pahars’ (multiple of numbers). Students
memorized these while uttering collective in a loud voice.
(12) Buildings: In general, the students sat on the ground in the rows under the shade of a tree
and the teacher used a mat or dear skin to sit at. He also attended to the students while standing.
5.4.5. The Madrasahs or Madrasas
The ‘Madrasahs’ imparted secondary and higher education. Often these Madrasahs
were attached to mosques. The term ‘Madrasahs’ is derived from the Arabic word ‘dars’ (a
lecture) and means a place where the lecture is given. There was a difference in principles
between the Madrasa and other mosques. When a particular room was set apart in a mosque
for teaching purposes it was called a Madrasah. Sometimes it was quite close to a large
mosque. It functioned as a college of higher education where eminent scholars taught
different subjects by using the lecture method supplemented by discussions. Management
was usually privately supported by state grants and endowments. The content of the
curriculum was both religious and secular and covered a period from 10 to 12 years.
Religious education comprised the deep study of the Quran, Islamic law, and Sufism.
Literature, logic, history, geography, astronomy, astrology, arithmetic, agriculture, and
medicine were the secular subjects taught in madrasa. Some madrasa had hostels attached to
them which provided free boarding and lodging.
5.4.6. Methods of Teaching
In Muslim education, different teaching methods were adopted to teach different
subjects at different levels. At the primary level, the teaching method adopted were imitation,
practice, and memorization. At the higher level speech, lecture, and explanation methods
were adopted. To teach subjects like philosophy and logic, the logic method was used. The
self-study method was also adopted for higher levels. To teach the activity-oriented subjects,

arts, skills, and other vocations Demonstration, Experiment, and practice methods were
adopted.
5.4.7. Teachers: (USTAD)
People well versed in Islamic religion and Scholars of Arabic or Persian or other
subjects could become teachers. They receive high salary and they possessed high status in
society.
5.4.8. Students (SHAGIRD)
The students lived under the strict control and discipline of the teachers. They lived in
a highly authoritative and oppressive condition. They lead a sophisticated life in the hostels.
In the hostel they had very good infrastructure facilities and very delicious food was
provided.
5.4.9. Teacher-Taught Relationship
The teacher loved their students and taught them with great concern. Students also
respected their teachers and obeyed them devotedly. The students obeyed the teachers out of
fear in the medieval period.
5.4.10. Conclusion
In retrospect one may say that Muslim education was an exotic plant in India. It failed
to benefit the Indians to the extent to which an education system of a society should have
been some of the good aspects like free education, state patronage, and regular financial aid
to the educational institutions have been practiced in the modern system of education.
INITIAL EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE EUROPEAN CHRISTIAN
MISSIONARIES
Introduction
India has been a center of attraction to foreigners since the ancient period. In 1448,
Vasco-de-Gama discovered the sea route to India. 1510 they influenced the sea route. Nearly
for 100 years, they dominated. There was a clash between European and British traders
regarding the establishment of in trade British succeeded. Portuguese Christian missionaries
were the pioneers to introduce the modern system of education. The French and Danish
missionaries also continued but in the end, British missionaries succeeded everyone. Let us
see the chronological order of introducers of the modern system of education.
Portuguese traders and the Portuguese Christian missionaries were the first to enter
India. They were followed by the British, Dutch, French, and Danish traders and Christian
missionaries. But ultimately it was the British who succeeded in establishing themselves in
India.

1. Educational work of the Portuguese Christian Missionaries
In 1498 Vasco-de-Gama, the Portuguese sailor discovered the sea route to India. In
1510 the Portuguese established their rule over Goa. In 1556 they set up a printing press in
Goa. In 1575 they established a Jesuit college in Goa. In 1577 St. Ann Collegiate Bandra near
Bombay. Portuguese traders gradually established trading centers in India. Portuguese were
establishing trading as well as propagation of Christianity, culture, and educational
institutions. Among those two outstanding Portuguese missionaries namely.
“Saints Francis Xavier and Robert-de-Nobili” They traversed on foot to far-off places
in India propagated Christianity and Educational Institutions. Portuguese established primary
schools first. They taught Portuguese, Latin, the local language, mathematics, grammar,
logic, logic crafts, music, and education of Christianity. They started printing religious books
and textbooks in their own press. Textbooks, clothing, and food were provided free to the
poor students. As the jurisdiction of Portuguese traders increased so the number of
missionaries also increased. Started primary schools in Daman, Diu, Hoogly, Chatgaon,
Cochin, and Bombay. Started modern primary education and modern higher education in
India. Akbar impressed by the Jesuit fathers and established a Jesuit college at Agra. But the
Portuguese’s cast their eyes on Delhi. Emperor Shahjahan drove them out in 1662. But the
Jesuit’s domination over Goa continued. Portuguese are regarded as the founder of the
European system of education in India.
2. Educational work of the Dutch Christian missionaries
Dutch traders from Holland entered India in the mid of 17th century. They established
trading centers along with the sea coast in Chinsura and Hoogly in Bengal and Nagapattinam
and Billipattm in Madras. Dutch missionaries had also missionaries accompanied them. They
established primary schools to educate children of both, the Dutch and Indian citizens
working in Dutch factories as well as Indians also. They taught Dutch, local languages,
geography, mathematics, and local arts and skills on European patterns in these schools. They
refrained from making these schools the center of religious education. “Due to enmity with
the British” they had to leave India soon.
3. Educational work of the French Christian Missionaries
The French traders entered India in 1667. They too had brought French Christian
missionaries. French established factories in Mahe, Yanam, Karaikal, Chandernagore, and
Pondicherry. They established primary schools near their factories. In the hands of
Missionaries, the schools were entrusted. The medium of education was French and local
languages. French and Indian teachers were appointed in the schools. Education of the

Christian religion, Frech and was compulsory. Christian missionary was inevitably appointed
in each school to instruct religious education. Established education in secondary school in
Pondicherry. Faced the enmity with British people in three Carnatic wars they had to leave
India. Back to square one British took over the position.
4. Educational work of the Danish Christian Missionaries
In 1680 the Danish traders and missionaries reached India. They established their
factories in Serampore, Travancore, Tanjore, and Thrichirapalli. They too in line with the
thinking of previous missionaries i.e. nothing but the propagation of Christianity. To
propagate Christianity, they established primary schools in Travancore, Tanjore, and Madras,
and the organization of the schools was given to the missionaries. The medium was local
language and education of Christianity was compulsory. They translated the bible into the
Tamil language and set up the printing press to print Bible in Tamil. They converted 5000
Tamilians into Christians. In 1716, they established a Teacher Training College in
Travancore, a pioneer of starting a teacher training college in India. The medium was multi-
lingual. They failed to succeed in trade and commerce and at last sold the factories to British
people and returned to their country, Denmark.
5. Educational work of the British Christian Missionaries
They have contributed a lot to the development of a modern system of English
Education. East India Company came to India in 1613. Every British ship was accompanied
by a Missionary. The only aim the missionaries had to propagate Christianity and British
culture. They made Bengal their center for this work. They started this work in two methods;
one through education, other is service to the poor and infirmed. The missionaries were
supported by Britain and East India companies for financial assistance and patronage.
They established many charity-based schools in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
There were two types of these schools. The first, medium of education was English and
second, the medium was local languages. But the education of Christianity was compulsory
in both types of schools. Missionary work was a bit slower in the beginning. After the Charter
Act 1695, East India Company permitted missionary fathers to run schools in the British
cantonments. As a result, missionaries took up the task and established hundreds of primary
schools in Bengal, Bombay, and Madras (1731).
They established secondary schools in Madras. Education of Christianity was made
compulsory in all these schools. Simultaneously East India Companies' hands soared high
due to the internal conflicts between the emperors of India. There was a bill against
propagating religion in schools. In that way, missionaries established a lot of schools in

various places in India. There were three Christian controversial missionaries who published
a book titled Address to Hindus and Muslims. In that book, they expressed their own views
and experiences with the people who practice Hinduism and Islam. General Lord Minto
arrested the missionary, seized all the rights of the press, and banned the books. (Hindus are
superstitious and ignorant and prophet Mohammed is a false prophet).
To oppose this act by the General, two groups were formed in the British parliament.
One group supported the act and the other against it. In 1813, missionaries were given
permission to visit India without any restriction to organize education. Even though Christian
missionaries established institutions to propagate Christianity in India, they have contributed
enormously contributed for the development of the field of education in India.
Conclusion
As we had discussed from the beginning all these Christian missionaries landed in
India with an aim of proclaiming the Word of God and they remarkably contributed a lot to
the field of education. They designed a system of education in India. They fixed the
curriculum, prepared textbooks, methods of teaching, and published them. They introduced
timetables, the class system,s, and the examination system for class promotion. East India
Company had two ideas in this context 1. Propagate Christianity 2. Educate Indians. When
they established themselves ruler of the country they executed their plan and accomplished it
till 1857.
BRITISH PERIOD
INTRODUCTION
After the downfall of the Muslim rule, Britishers came to India and established the
East Indian company but soon the reign of the government reached the hands of the British
parliament. Britishers ruled over India for about 150 years. During this period western
science and literature made good progress through the English medium
CHARTER ACT OF 1813
The Charter Act of the East India Company was renewed after every 20 years in the
British parliament. In 1813, when the company’s charter again came for renewal in the
parliament, most of the members in the parliament supported the movement led by the
Christian missionaries. As a result, three articles were added in the charter act of 1813.
1) Missionaries of any European country will have full freedom to visit India to
propagate Christianity and to expand education there
2) It will now be the responsibility of East India company to organize education in
the areas under its rule.

3) A sum of not less than one lakh of rupees each year shall be set apart and
applied to the revival and improvement of literature and the encouragement of the
learned natives of India and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the
science among the inhabitant of the British territories in India.
Anglicists - Orientalists controversy
The Anglicist - Orientalists controversy had its origin in the charter Act 1813. The
terms, ‘literature’ and the learned natives' were not clearly defined in section 43 of the charter
Act, 1813.
Orientalist Group
Mostly the senior and the experienced officials of the company belonged to this
group. According to them the term ‘literature’ meant Indian literature and the term ‘learned
natives’ meant the scholars of Indian literature
Anglicist Group
This group contained mostly the young officials of the company. For them, the term
‘literature’ and learned natives in the Charter Act, 1813 meant Western literature and the
learned natives of western literature respectively.
MACAULAY MINUTE (1835)
The Anglicists and orientalists controversy could not be solved even after 20 years in
the new charter Act of 1833. On June 10, 1834, Lord Macaulay came to India as a law
member of the Governor General’s council. Lord William Bentick the then Governor-
General, appointed him the president of the public instructions and asked him to render his
advice on three points -first –how to spend Rs. 10 lakh per annum on education second to
define the terms ‘literature’ and ‘learned native’ and third to solve the anglicists orientalists'
controversy Macaulay Submitted his report on 1835. in that he mentioned.
1) The word ‘literature’ meant only English literature and not Sanskrit or Arabic or
Persian literature
2) The word ‘learned natives’ meant a scholar who is learned in Locke’s philosophy,
Milton’s poetry that is English literature.
WILLIAM BENTICK RESOLUTION
Lord Bentik seriously went through Macaulay’s report and declared the new
education policy of the British Government on March 7. 1835. The major declarations of this
policy are
1) All government funds appropriated for the purpose of education would be best
employed in English education alone.

2) The educational institutions of Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian shall not be closed down.
The economic grants for their teacher's salaries and students' scholarships will
continue as before.
3) In the future no expenditure will be made on the printing and publication of
oriental literature.
4) The money so saved will be spent on the education of the English language,
literature, and Western knowledge and science.
DOWNWARD FILTRATION THEORY
This theory meant, “Education is to be filtered to the common people. Drop by drop
the education should go to the common public so that at the due time it may take the form of
a vast stream which remained watering desert of the society for long times and high class of
people should be educated and common people gain influence from them.”
Its Basic Causes:
1. The company needed various types of workers to run the business and government.
They wanted to have cheap servants who work in different capacities.
2. The government did not have enough money to take the responsibility of educating
the masses.
3. If the standard of living and ideas of the people of higher classes in society could be
changed through English education then the people of the lower classes also be
influenced and they shall grow loyal to the British government.
4. If educated high-class people are given higher posts in government services then
naturally they will use their influence for controlling the masses from going against
the British government.
5. After educating some people, the responsibility of education could be left to them.
WOOD’S DESPATCH (1854)
INTRODUCTION
The company has to take orders after every twenty years from the British parliament
and in each order, something was written about education in India. Therefore, when the time
for the charter of 1853 came, the directors of the company thought for laying down a definite
policy in regard to educational matters of India. So a parliamentary committee was appointed
to survey the educational progress in India. As Mr. Wood was chairman of the Board of
Control, so the declaration was Christianized as ‘Wood’s Educational Despatch’.

THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE DESPATCH ARE AS FOLLOWS
1 The acceptance of Educational Responsibility: The Despatch clearly accepted that
the responsibility of education in India lies in British Government.
2 The aim of education: The aim of education is to raise intellectual fitness and
moral character.
3 Courses of study: Mr. Wood had recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic,
and Persian and recommended them as subjects of study in regular Institutions.
Finally, like Macaulay, he had also recognized the usefulness of Western
knowledge for Indians.
4 The Medium of Instruction: The Despatch says that due to the dearth of course
books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be English.
5 Department of Public Instruction: The Despatch declared that in all the provinces,
the department of public Instruction should be set up. Its highest official should be
designated as the Director of Public Instruction, and he should be assisted by the
Deputy Director, Inspector, and Deputy Inspector of schools.
6 Establishment of Universities: The Despatch has suggested the setting up of the
Universities at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
7 Establishment of Regular Institutions: The Despatch emphasized the graded
schools as follows, primary schools, middle schools, high schools, colleges,
universities.
8 Extension of Public Education: As ‘Filtration Theory’ failed, so Wood
emphasized useful education for the public. As the public itself was unable to gain
such an education. So increase in primary, middle, and high schools were
emphasized. In order to coordinate education at these various levels, it was
suggested to have scholarships and implement other schemes.
9 Grant-in-aid system: The Despatch suggested the Grant-in-aid System for the
institutions which fulfilled certain qualifications. He has also suggested that the
rules and regulations for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the levels practiced in
England.
10 Training of the Teachers: They suggested opening training schools in every
province of India, as they are in England was expressed in the Despatch. This was
done, so that teaching work may be conducted properly and efficiently.
11 Education of Women: He threw light on women's education too and praising the
persons engaged in this pious work, he suggested for its further encouragement

through Grant-in-aid and other measures. He has also approved the declaration of
the Governor-General that the Government should favorably assist female
education in India.
12 Muslim Education: Concerning Muslim education, Mr. Wood has said that
Muslims are too backward in education and they should be encouraged to gain
more education and efforts should be made in this direction.
13 Vocational Education: They paid more attention to vocational education and
suggested that schools and colleges should be set up at suitable places to provide
vocational education.
14 Encouragement of the Oriental Education: Though the report has supported
western education through English medium for the Indians, yet it has
recommended for the development of Indian literature and suggested that the
books of western literature and science should not only be translated in these
languages, but original books should also be caused to be written, and for the
purpose, the writers should be rewarded and encouraged.
15 Education and Service: In this reference, Mr. Wood has clearly said: A) While
selecting the candidates for Government service their academic qualifications
should be considered well. B) Academically, high qualified persons should be
preferred more than the others for government services.
CONCLUSION
Since Wood’s Despatch has contributed much to the organization and stabilization of
the present Indian educational system, it is called ‘A valuable contribution to the history of
Indian Education.
INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OR HUNTER’ S COMMISSION (1882)
INTRODUCTION
Lord Rippon came to India on February 3, 1882. He appointed the first Indian
Education commission. Mr. William Hunter, a member of the viceroy’s Executive council,
was the chairman of this commission. It came to be popularly known as ‘Hunter’s
commission’.
TERMS OF REFERENCE OF THE COMMISSION
The commission was to make the following inquiries
1) condition of primary education and the methods of its expansion
2) Position of State institutions and their importance
3) Position of missionary institutions in general

4) Attitude of government towards private enterprises.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF HUNTER COMMISSION
1. PRIMARY EDUCATION
The policies of the Primary Education
• Primary education should be useful for the general life of the people and the
subjects which are helpful for him in his practical life should be included.
• The medium of instruction should be vernacular or Indian languages.
• Government should make a constant effort for its progress, expansion, and
development.
• Primary education should aim not only at preparing the students to enter into higher
education but it should aim at spreading public education all right.
CURRICULUM
The state should have a free hand to frame the curriculum. In spite of this
recommendation, the commission said that physics, Agriculture, first-aid, Banking, Geometry
subjects that are of practical value in life ought to be included in the curriculum of primary
education.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
• It suggested that the local bodies and provincial government should give some aid
for this.
• Finances for the schools in the villages and cities should be separated.
• Local funds for education should in no case be sent to secondary or higher
education.
• The commission had recommended that the provincial Government shall give a
grant for primary education to the extent of 11/2 of the local fund for education or 1/3
of the entire expenditure on this item.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRIMARY INSTITUTIONS
The commission recommended that in order to raise the standard of the primary
institutions, the teachers should be properly trained.
INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
• No restriction should be imposed for admission to such institutions.
• Government should encourage such institutions.
• Such institutions may voluntarily hand over the administration to the Municipal
Boards and District Boards.

• The government should not interfere in their curriculum in any way and special
financial aid for the inclusion of the subject of practical value in life may be given by
the government.
• Poor students should be given stipends and scholarships.
• Proper arrangements for the training of the teachers of these institutions should
also be made.
SECONDARY EDUCATION
• The Government should give the administration and organization of secondary
education into the hands of efficient and able Indians.
• The commission recommended two types of a curriculum called Curriculum A &
B.
• Curriculum A was to have subjects that were to be useful for higher study.
• Curriculum B was to have vocational, occupational, and practical subjects.
• English should continue as a medium of instruction.
HIGHER EDUCATION
• They recommended having varied and vast curricula so that the students can select
the subjects of their choice and aptitude.
• Grant-in-aid is given to the colleges by considering its expenditure, number of
teachers, efficiency, and local need.
• Meritorious & promising students may be sent to foreign countries for higher
education on Government scholarship.
• Teachers who have received education in European Universities are preferred for
an appointment.
• Private colleges should be authorized to receive a lesser fee as compared to
Government colleges.
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
They recommended increasing the number of inspectors in every province and
Indians to be appointed on the post of District inspectors of schools
SYSTEM OF GRANT-IN -AID
• Changes and reform should be made in the rule of the grant-in-aid system
according to the requirement of all the institutions
• All the changes must be sent to the managers of aided institutions in their
vernacular languages.

• Special educational officers should be appointed to give counsel to the managers of
Government aided institutions
EDUCATION OF THE WOMEN
• Free education, the appointment of lady Teachers and lady Inspectresses
• Liberal Grant-in-aid system
• Different curriculum for girls
• Decent arrangements of Hostels
• Special arrangements for the education of ‘Parda’ observing ladies.
MUSLIM EDUCATION
• Effort must be made to popularize Muslim education
• Special funds should be allocated for it
• More scholarships should be given to Muslim students
• In government appointments, Muslims should be given proportionate
representation.
EDUCATION OF HARIJANS AND BACKWARD CLASS
• All the schools run by the Government, municipalities, and local boards should
admit children of Harijans and the Backward class.
• Special schools should be open for them, where there was an objection raised to the
admission of these Harijans and Backward children.
• School teachers must take judicious effects to remove caste prejudices.
EDUCATION OF ABORIGINALS AND HILL TRIBES
• The government was expected to take up the responsibility of educating aboriginals
and Hill tribes.
• Free education and the subjects taught should be of the most elementary character.
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
• Religious education of any sort should not be given in public schools.
• Religious education may be imparted in the private institutions and the government
shall have nothing to do with it.
CONCLUSION
The Hunter Commission was appointed mainly to study the problem and development
of primary education. But they made suggestions in regard to the secondary, higher women
and modern education. It was on the basis of suggestions of the commission a network of
primary schools was spread throughout the country and secondary and higher education
received a great impetus.

WARDHA SCHEME OF EDUCATION (OR) BASIC EDUCATION (1937)
INTRODUCTION
The Government of India act, 1935 brought an end to diarchy in the Indian provinces.
In 1937, popular Governments were established in the provinces, and out of the 11 provinces,
had congress ministers. The congress ministers at this juncture were faced with a dilemma.
On one hand, they wanted to execute the Gandhian plan of education and on the other, they
wanted to enforce compulsory and pre-primary education. However, Mahatma Gandhi, father
of the Nation presented a new scheme of education and gave a lead in the direction.
ALL- INDIA NATIONAL EDUCATION CONFERENCE
In the Harijans of October 2, 1937, Gandhiji wrote an article about convening an All –
India National Educational conference on October 22, 23, 1937. This is also known as the
Wardha Educational conference and it was held under the president of Gandhiji himself.
Eminent Educationists, national leaders, Social reformers, and provincial ministers of
education took part in the deliberations of the conference.
After a good deal of discussions, the following resolution was passed
1) Free and compulsory education be provided for 7 years on a nationwide- scale.
2) Medium of instruction is the mother tongue.
3) The process of education should center around some form of manual and
productive work
4) The conference accepts that this system of education will be gradually able to cover
the remuneration of the teachers.
DR. ZAKIR HUSSAIN COMMITTEE, 1937
In order to give a final shape to the resolutions passed in the All India National
Education Conference, Wardha a committee was formed under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir
Hussain, then the Vice-Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia University. The committee
submitted its report in two parts. The first report was presented in Dec 1937. It defined the
principles, curriculum, administration, and supervision work of the Wardha education
scheme. The second report was presented in April 1938. It enumerated the correlation
between the basic handicrafts and others subjects of the curriculum.
OUTLINES OF THE SCHEME OF EDUCATION
1) The duration of the course of basic education is 7 years. It aims at imparting free
and compulsory education to the boys and girls from age of 7to 14years.
2) Mother tongue will be the medium of instruction and teaching of English shall have
no place in the curriculum

3) The entire education shall center around some Basic craft, which shall be selected
in accordance with the needs of the children and the locality.
4) Goods produced by the children should be utilized and profit so earned to meet the
expenditure of the schools.
5) Education of the craft to be given in such a way that the children may earn their
livelihood from it.
6) In the education of the crafts, the economic importance, as well as its social and
scientific importance, should be given place.
AIMS OF BASIC EDUCATION
• Education should develop the qualities of an ideal citizen in the child, socially,
politically, economically, and culturally.
• Education should develop a love for Indian culture in the hearts of the educands.
• All-round development of the personality was considered ie it must develop a child
intellectually, socially, physically, morally, spiritually.
• After completion of the education, they may be able to earn their livelihood and
fulfill their needs.
• Establishment of a society that was free from the evils and defects of the present-
day society.
CURRICULUM
Basic Craft-out of the following basic crafts, anyone may be selected
Agriculture, spinning and weaving, woodcraft, fisheries, Leatherwork, Pottery or ceramics,
fruit preservation or Gardening, any other craft according to the Geographical environment of
the locality.
Mother tongue, Mathematics, Social studies, General Science, Nature study, Botany,
Zoology, Chemistry, Elementary Hygiene, Astronomy, Life stories of eminent scientists and
inventories, Art (music or painting), Hindi, Home science-Girls, Physical Education.
TEACHERS
• It emphasis appointing female teachers in place of male teachers at the primary
level.
• It is necessary to appoint only trained teachers.
• Long-tern training (3years) and short-term training (1 year) should be given.

TIME-TABLE
In the timetable of the basic scheme of education, it was thought that boys shall have
to devote 5 hours and a half for their study. It was also considered necessary to work for
about 288 days in the year.
METHODS OF TEACHING
• Education is imparted through activities and in a short period of time the students
are given knowledge of various and varied subjects.
• Emphasis on activity-based education
CONCLUSION
In retrospect, it may be said that theoretically Basic education seems very attractive
but practically it is a total failure. Gandhiji anticipated that the education of crafts and skills
would help make education self-supporting however just the reverse happened. The result
was sheer wastage of raw material, time, energy, and money. But some of the aspects of basic
education still have relevance like education through mother tongue and activity-oriented
education. It is good for any country and therefore for India too.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BASIC EDUCATION AND ITS RELEVANCE TO
THE PRESENT DAY CONTEXT
The present education experiment like basic education, Vishwa Bharti, Aurobindo
Ashram, Gurukul Kangri and Banasthali Vidyapeeth, etc., are glaring examples of our ancient
system of education in the country. In the words of S.K.Mukerjee, “They were started with
the object of reviving the ancient institution of Brahmacharya, of revitalizing ancient Indian
philosophy and literature and of producing good citizens and preachers of Vedic religion.”
While delivering his address in the Dada Bhai Naurozi lectures series L.S. Mudaliar, a
renowned Indian educationist had said “Let our young Indian realize the heritage that is there.
May the young generation imbibe the true spirit of India and follow it in all their endeavors.”
Development of Education in India after Independence
After the implementation of plans, efforts were made to spread education. The
government decided to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of
14. But this aim could not be achieved yet. In the First Five Year Plan, 7.9% of the total plan
outlay was allocated for education. In the Second and Third plans, the allocations were 5.8%

and 6.9% of the total plan outlay. In Ninth Plan only 3.5% of the total outlay was allocated
for education.
To streamline education, the Govt. implemented the recommendations of the Kothari
Commission under ‘National Policy on Education in 1968. The main recommendations were
universal primary education. Introduction of a new pattern of education, three language
formula, the introduction of regional language in higher education, development of
agricultural and industrial education, and adult education. To combat the changing socio-
economic needs of the country, Govt. of India announced a new National Policy on
Education in 1986. Universalization of primary education, vocationalisation of secondary
education, and specialization of higher education were the main features of this policy.
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) at the National
level and State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) at the State level
were established to maintain the standard of education. University Grants Commission
(UGC) was instituted to determine the standard of higher education.
The following points explain the development of education in India after
independence:
1. Expansion of General Education:
During the period of planning there has been an expansion of general education. In
1951, the percentage of literacy was 19.3. In 2001 the literacy percentage increased to 65.4%.
The enrolment ratio of children in the age group of 6-11 was 43% in 1951 and in it became
100% in 2001. Primary education – been free and compulsory. Midday meal has been started
in schools since 1995 to check drop-out rate. The number of primary schools has risen by
three times from 2.10 lakh (1950-51) to 6.40 lakhs (2001-02). There were only 27
universities in 1950-51 which increased to 254 in 2000-01.
2. Development of Technical Education:
Besides general education, technical education plays important role in human capital
formation. The Govt. has established several Industrial Training Institutes, Polytechnics,
Engineering colleges, and Medical and Dental colleges, Management institutes, etc.

(a) Indian Institute of Technology:
For education and research in engineering and technology of international standard,
seven institutes have been established at Mumbai, Delhi, Kanpur, Chennai, Kharagpur,
Roorkee, and Gauhati, Technical education is imparted here both for graduation and post-
graduation and doctorate level.
(b) National Institute of Technology (NIT):
These institutes impart education in engineering and technology. These were called
the Regional College of Engineering (REC). These are 17 in number throughout the country.
There are other institutes in the country to teach engineering and technical education.
(c) Indian Institute of Management:
These institutes impart education in business management and administration. These
institutes are located in Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, and Kozhikode.
(d) Medical education:
There were only 28 medical colleges in the country in 1950-51. There were 165
medical and 40 dental colleges in the country in 1998-99.
(e) Agricultural education:
Agricultural Universities have been started in almost all States to improve the
production and productivity of agriculture. These universities impart education and research
in agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, and veterinary sciences, etc.
3. Women education:
In India, literature among women was quite low. It was 52% according to the 2001
census. While the literacy among men was 75.8%. Women's education was given top priority
in National Policy on Education. Many State Governments have exempted the tuition fee of
girls up to the university level. Separate schools and colleges have been established to raise
the level of literacy among women.

4. Vocational education:
National Policy of Education, 1986, aims at vocationalisation of secondary education.
Central Govt. has been giving grants to State Governments to implement the program since
1988. Agriculture, Pisciculture, diary, poultry, typing, electronics, mechanical and carpentry,
etc. had been included in the higher secondary curriculum.
5. Growth of higher education:
In 1951, there were 27 universities. Their number increased to 254 in 2001. In Orissa
state, there was only one university in 1951. Now there are 9 universities.
6. Non-formal education:
This scheme was launched on an experimental basis from the Sixth plan and on
regular basis from the Seventh plan. The aim was to achieve universal elementary education
for all children in the age group of 6-14 years. The scheme was meant for those children who
cannot attend schools regularly and for a full time due to poverty and pre-occupation with
other works. The Central Govt. is providing assistance to State Govt. and voluntary
organization to implement the scheme. Non-formal education centers have been set up in
remote rural areas, hilly and tribal areas, and slums. These impart education to children of the
6-14 age group.
7. Encouragement to Indian Language and Culture:
After the adoption of the National Policy of Education in 1968, regional language
became the medium of instruction in higher education. Syllabus on science and technology,
dictionaries, books, and Question Papers are translated into regional languages. Indian history
and culture have been included in the school and college curriculum.
8. Adult education:
Simply speaking adult education refers to the education for illiterate people belonging
to the age group of 15-35 years. The National Board of Adult Education was established in
the First Five Year Plan. The village-level workers were assigned the job of providing adult
education. The progress remained not too good. The National Adult Education Programme

was started in 1978. The program is considered a part of primary education. National Literary
Mission was also started in 1988 to eradicate adult illiteracy, particularly in rural areas. The
Centre gives assistance to states, voluntary organizations, and some selected universities to
implement this program. There were 2.7 lakh adult education centers working in the country
in 1990-91. This program helped to raise the literacy rate to 65.38% in 2001.
9. Improvement of Science education:
Central Govt. started a scheme for the improvement of science education in schools in
1988. Financial assistance is given to provide science kits, up-gradation of science
laboratories, development of teaching material, and training of science and mathematics
teachers. A Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) was set up in NCERT to
purchase equipment for State Institutes of Educational Technology.
10. Education for all:
According to 93rd Amendment, education for all has been made compulsory.
Elementary education is a fundamental right of all children in the age group of 6-14 years. It
is also free. To fulfill this obligation Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has been launched. The
above discussion makes it clear that a lot of development in education has been made in India
after Independence. There is wide growth in general education and higher education. Efforts
have been made to spread education among all sections and all regions of the country. Still,
our education system is ridden with problems.

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