2. Definition of Learning
Learning
– a relatively permanent change in behavior
brought about by experience
– distinguishes between maturation and
experience
– distinguishes between short-term changes
in performance and actual learning
7. How do we learn? Association
We connect events that occur in
sequence… like a dog hearing his
master say “Sit,” his sitting then
receiving a biscuit from the master…
Learning
8. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
•1904 Nobel Prize in Medicine
•20 years studying digestive system
•30 years studying learning
Pavlov noticed that dogs would
drool in anticipation
of food.
What were dogs thinking or
feeling? How did they know he was
going to feed them? Did they see,
smell or associate him with food?
Ivan Pavlov
(Richardson, 1999)
10. Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
– a type of learning in which an organism responds
to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring
about that response; associative learning
– Thunder = Rain = Lightning = get umbrella
– “Sit” = biscuit
Neutral stimulus
– prior to conditioning, has no effect on the desired
response
– Until you experience thunder with rain & lightning,
you don’t think about getting your umbrella
– Until you pair “Sit” with the behavior of sitting and
the reward of biscuit…. “Sit” had no meaning
11. Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
– a stimulus that brings about a response
without having been learned (smell of food
causes salivation)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
– a response that is natural and needs no
training (e.g. salivation at the smell of food)
12. Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
– a once-neutral stimulus that has been
paired with a UCS to bring about a
response formerly caused only by the UCS
(bell rings, dog salivates because he has
paired the bell with food due to condioning)
Conditioned Response (CR)
– a response that, after conditioning, follows
a previously neutral stimulus (salivation
caused by bell ringing)
16. Classical Conditioning
Extinction
– a previously conditioned response
decreases in frequency and eventually
disappears
Spontaneous Recovery
– the reappearance of a previously
extinguished response after time has
elapsed without exposure to the
conditioned stimulus
17. Classical Conditioning
Stimulus Generalization
– conditioned response follows a stimulus
that is similar to the original conditioned
stimulus
Stimulus Discrimination
– organism learns to differentiate among
stimuli
Higher-Order Conditioning
– pairing a previously conditioned stimulus
with a neutral stimulus
18. For example, a baby is uncomfortable
and begins to cry. The mother picks the
baby up to comfort it. The baby learns
to associate crying with being picked up
and will therefore cry whenever it wants
to be picked up even if there is no
discomfort. This is called learning by
stimulus-response (S-R) association. …
19. Dates
An effective way to memorize dates is to
associate them with dates that are already
significant for you such as your birthday, or
a major holiday. This can also be used for
remembering general times such as I have
to get my oil changed around the first day
of summer.
20. Numbers
Memorizing numbers can be made easier if they can be
associated with numerical information you already know.
The following example is an extension of using dates as
described above.
If I need to remember the street address '29' and your
birthday happens to be on the 29th you can associate the
street address with your birthday.
Other numbers that you likely already know include your
phone number, important dates, your street address, or
your PIN number for your bank card.
21. Environmental conditioning adds a
positive or negative consequence to the
learning that stamps it in: You run,
expecting a 100 yards of open field,
when you suddenly smack into a tree
you hadn't noticed. You will be more
careful in the future!
22. For a social animal, much of this
learning comes from others - i.e. it is
social conditioning, also known as
rewards and punishments.
So, instead of learning not to run across
streets by getting run-over, you learn by
getting punished as you begin to run
across the street.
23. Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
– learning in which a voluntary response is
strengthened or weakened, depending on
its positive or negative consequences
Law of Effect
– responses that are satisfying are more
likely to be repeated, and those that are
not satisfying are less likely to be repeated
24. Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
– the process by which a stimulus increases
the probability that a preceding behavior
will be repeated
Reinforcer
– any stimulus that increases the probability
that a preceding behavior will occur again
26. Operant Conditioning
Primary Reinforcer
– satisfies some biological need and works
naturally, regardless of a person’s prior
experience
Secondary Reinforcer
– a stimulus that becomes reinforcing
because of its association with a primary
reinforcer
27. Positive Reinforcers, Negative
Reinforcers, and Punishment
Positive Reinforcer
– added to the environment that brings about
an increase in a preceding response
Negative Reinforcer
– unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads
to an increase in the probability that a
preceding response will occur again in the
future
28. Positive Reinforcers, Negative
Reinforcers, and Punishment
Negative Reinforcer (cont.)
– Escape conditioning
– Avoidance conditioning
Punishment
– unpleasant or painful stimuli that decrease
the probability that a preceding behavior
will occur again
29. Examples of Reinforcement
Positive when stimuli is added
– getting a promotion or raise for good
performance at work
– increases frequency of good work
Punishment when stimuli is added
– getting a demotion or pay cut for poor work
– getting a spanking for misbehavior
– decreases frequency of poor work or
misbehavior
30. Examples of Reinforcement
Punishment by removing positive stimuli
– removal of television or video games for
getting bad grades
– decrease in frequency of bad grades
Negative reinforcement when stimuli is
added
– getting rid of pain by taking medication
– increase in frequency of taking medication
31. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
– behavior that is reinforced every time it
occurs
Partial Reinforcement
– behavior that is reinforced some but not all
of the time
32. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
– reinforcement is given only after a certain
number of responses are made
Variable-Ratio Schedule
– reinforcement occurs after a varying
number of responses rather than after a
fixed number
33. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Interval Schedule
– provides reinforcement for a response only
if a fixed time period has elapsed, making
overall rates of response relatively low
Variable-Interval Schedule
– time between reinforcements caries around
some average rather than being fixed
34. Discrimination and Generalization
in Operant Conditioning
Stimulus Control Training
– behavior is reinforced in the presence of a
specific stimulus, but not in its absence
Discriminative Stimulus
– signals the likelihood that reinforcement
will follow a response
35. Shaping: Reinforcing What
Doesn’t Come Naturally
Shaping
– the process of teaching a complex
behavior by rewarding closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior
Biological constraints
– built-in limitations in the ability of animals to
learn particular behaviors
36. Cognitive-Social Approaches to
Learning
Latent Learning
– learning in which a new behavior is
acquired but is not demonstrated until
reinforcement is provided
Observational Learning
– learning through observing the behavior of
another person (a “model”)
37. Model modeling
Technique emphasized :Modeling is an
instructional strategy in which the
teacher demonstrates a new concept or
approach to learning and students learn
by observing.
38. Model: Shaping
Sara never does her math homework. You would like
to have her complete her homework on a daily
basis. You realize that if you wait for her to complete
her homework before you reinforce her in some way,
you may never (or infrequently) have the opportunity to
administer a positive consequence. Therefore, you
decide to break down the desired behavior into
substeps that are progressively more demanding.
These steps might be:
1. Sara will write his name at the top of the worksheet.
2. Sara will complete one problem of his choice.
3. Sara will complete five problems of his choice.
4. Sara will complete either all the odd numbered
problems or all the even numbered problems.
5. Sara will complete all problems except one.
6. Sara will complete all problems.
39. Positive reinforcement
Jane cleans her room.
Jane's parents praise her.
Jane will continue to clean her room.
40. Positive reinforcement
Sana brushes her teeth after meals.
Sana receives a nickel each time.
Sana will continue to brush her teeth
after meals.
41. Positive reinforcement
Rabia works quietly at her seat.
The teacher praises and rewards Rabia.
Rabia will continue to work quietly at his
seat.
42. Negative reinforcement
Ali complains that older boys
consistently beat him up, and he
refuses to attend school.
Ali’s parents allow him to remain at
home because of his complaints.
Ali will continue to miss school.
It works in the short run but in the long
run is likely to strengthen rather than
weaken the undesirable behavior.
43.
44.
45. Negative reinforcement
Jason complains that older boys
consistently beat him up, and he
refuses to attend school.
Jason's parents allow him to remain at
home because of his complaints.
Jason will continue to miss school.
It works in the short run but in the long
run is likely to strengthen rather than
weaken the undesirable behavior.
46. Negative reinforcement
Bali complains of headaches when it is
time to do homework.
Bali is allowed to go to bed without
doing his homework.
Bali will have headaches whenever
there is homework to do.
47. Extinction
Jim washes his father's car.
Jim's car washing behavior is ignored.
Jim will stop washing his father's car.
48. Extinction
Karim puts glue on Jamil's seat.
Karim is ignored.
Karim will stop putting glue on Jamil's
seat.
49. Punishment
Maria sits on the arm of the chair.
Maria is spanked each time she sits on
the arm of the chair.
Maria will not sit on the arm of the chair.
50. Punishment
Taki puts Mona's pigtails in the paint.
The teacher administers the paddle to
Mona's posterior.
Taki will not put Mona’s pigtail in the
paint.