MRSA Research

MRSA Research
MRSA research was done by Pantosti and Venditti to supports the importance of prevention control.
Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus also known as MRSA, is an infectious disease that is
spread from skin–to–skin contact. MRSA is very easily spread in the healthcare scenes of which
most patient are susceptible to the 'staph' bacteria would usually be seeking treatment of other illness
for the infection itself. If a healthcare worker who touch an infected person has the possibility of
transferring the MRSA to an uninfected patient might spread the bacteria. Besides in the hospital
environment, anyone can get MRSA on their body from contact with an infected wound or by
sharing personal items, such as towels or razors, that have touched infected skin. MRSA infection
risk can be increased when a person is in activities or places that involve crowding, skin–to–skin
contact, and shared equipment or supplies. People including athletes, day–care and school students,
military personnel in barracks, and those who recently received inpatient medical care are at higher
risk (CDC, 2016).
1. Disease condition specifics here: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Outbreaks of MRSA have been reported among healthy athletes, people in jails and prisons, and in
military barracks. It is not known for certain if these groups always have a higher risk of MRSA
infections. Children have a higher rate of MRSA infection in the community than adults (). The
susceptibility stage of MRSA usually does not show any signs or symptoms. But when the
environment is at a perfect condition where it's easy for the bacteria to grow. Of which ideal is an
open injury in a moist area that effectively reach by with equipments, sheets, or skin to skin contact
that has been contaminated with MRSA. A temperature of 35 °C (or 95°F) is ideal for staph to grow
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Different Types Of Staph Infections
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a gram positive bacterium. It is accountable for numerous conditions when
it crosses the threshold into the human body. The bacterium may also be referred to as a 'Staph
infection'. There are more than 28 different types of staphylococcus aureus that are responsible for
cellulitis, blood poisoning, and various others. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus is also a
type of staphylococcus aureus. Staph infections are curable with different antibiotics.
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus is a microorganism that appears on several diverse surfaces. This bacterium
lives harmlessly on the skin as part of the normal flora. Hard surfaces are also covered in S. aureus.
The microorganism is gram positive. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"Staph infections can spread from person to person in group living situations (like college dorms).
Usually this happens when people with skin infections share personal things like bed linens, towels,
or clothing. Warm, humid environments can contribute to staph infections" (Staph, 2016). Infections
from the staph families are especially common in teens and young adults due to the amount of
sharing and touching this age group do. It is important to educate adolescents about the damage that
a staph infection can have on the body. Americans should also be diligent about having good
hygiene in order to reduce the chance of getting an infection.
The staph infections can range from somber to flesh–eating infections. A common skin condition
that staph is able to cause is cellulitis. It is more common in people who have a weakened immune
system such as people who are immunocompromised, infants, and the elderly. Cellulitis is
characterized by a red, warm patch on the skin paired with a fever. "The bacteria that cause cellulitis
can spread rapidly, entering lymph nodes and your bloodstream. Recurrent episodes of cellulitis may
cause chronic swelling of the affected limb" (Mayo, 2015). Cellulitis is spread extremely easily, and
is a big issue within long term care facilities. The infection can be cured by antibiotics. However,
there are cases reported stating that cellulitis is becoming resistant to some antibiotics. The doctor
can order a culture to send to pathology.

Methicillin-Resistant S. Aureus (MRSA)
Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major cause of hospital–acquired
infections that are becoming increasingly difficult to treat because of emerging resistance to all
current antibiotics. Infections are created by pathogens, or microbes that create diseases. There are
different types of microbes including: bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. Some microbes are
beneficial to the human body, however, there are pathogens that are deadly and require antibiotics.
Antibiotics are antimicrobials that were developed to destroy microbes. Penicillin, the first
commercialized antibiotic, was discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming.(Enright, Robinson,
Randle, 2002) While it wasn't distributed among the general public until 1945, it was widely used in
World War II for surgical and wound infections among the Allied Forces. Methicillin was introduced
in 1959 to treat infections caused by penicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus. In 1961, there were
reports from the United Kingdom of S. aureus isolates that had acquired resistance to methicillin
(methicillin–resistant S. aureus, MRSA).(Enright, Robinson, Randle, 2002)
Most often, MRSA lives and infects the skin. MRSA can also be in different ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The CDC has set goals for improving handwashing to prevent the spread of infections. (Hospital
National Patient Safety Goals, 2016) With that said, handwashing is the number one intervention
that the patient, healthcare workers and families can improve upon to prevent the disease from
spreading. To stop the disease from spreading as a carrier, the CDC also recommends disinfecting all
gym equipment before and after use; showering well with soap and water before entering any public
saunas, hot tubs, or pools; showering immediately after participating in sports or working out; and
showering before any intimate skin–to–skin contact with another person. (Living With MRSA,

Medical Case Study: MRSA
Heather Thornburg
Allison Pearce
Bio 271
April 24, 2016
MRSA
Working in the medical field I have come across a big group of my patients getting MRSA. Some of
these people has been in the hospital others had not, so it made you wonder where they came across
this bacteria. No matter what type of patient came in with it, it was always a big deal. So much that
each patients chart has a special alert on it once they have been diagnosed with it at any point in
their life. This bacteria has always intrigued me even more so when earlier this year, I myself was
diagnosis with MRSA in a pimple I had on my face. It was amazing and scary to me on how quickly
it escalated in size, pain, severity, and most of all it not treated timely depending on where ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For hospital MRSA (HA–MRSA) is you are positive for MRSA in a wound or colonized you are
placed on contact precautions and surface that has or can become contaminated is disinfected
(Mayo). Colonized means that you have MRSA bacterium in your nose which is the most common
place for it to thrive. For these patient using triple antibiotic inside the nares for a week to 10 days
will decrease the colonization and risk for it getting into an open wound. For both types of MRSA
hand washing is the number one defense on stopping the spread. All it takes is 15 seconds of hand
scrubbing and drying them with a throw away towel. If hand washing is not feasible at that point of
time hand sanitizer with 62% of alcohol can be substituted (Mayo). Other key to prevent community
MRSA (CA–MRSA) is keeping wounds covered, not sharing personal items, showering after
participating in any athletic event, and sanitizing linens. MRSA can be a scary for a patient and how
it is going to affect them. Medicine has come a long way in being able to detect this and to be able to
treat it in a timely manner. It does make a person think twice about if they really need antibiotics for
every illness they encounter and how it can affect the body. Peace of mind comes to know
something so simple can take care of something that can be so deadly. So always remember hand
washing goes a long way to keep us all

The Discovery Of Antibiotics And Medicine Essay
The discovery of antibiotics is arguably the greatest contribution to modern medicine. The
widespread use of antibiotics along with vaccines had paved the way for the treatment and cure for
many of the otherwise fatal bacteria diseases and this led to a decline in the mortality rates in the
mid–20th century. The use of antibiotics in medicine today to treat diseases have not all been met
with positive outcomes. As a matter of fact, its relative ease of access and abundance has given rise
to a major problem in creating new strains of bacteria that are able to resist our antibiotics today.
Such is the case for a special type of bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, a gram–positive bacterium
with a spherical shape which in some strains of this particular species has ultimately developed
resistance to virtually all antibiotics we have present today. Staphylococcus aureus is often found on
skin surfaces in humans colonizing about 30% of the human population [1]. They generally are not
pathogenic until they enter inside the body through an open wound or colonize other areas of the
body of which they generally are not found [1]. Staphylococcus aureus commonly cause non–fatal
skin diseases such as folliculitis, cellulitis and abscesses however, they can invade the circulatory
system and cause a serious infection known as bacteremia [1,9]. Bacteremia is often common in a
hospital setting where patients are exposed to invasive procedures such as surgeries which allow
colonies of S.

Staphylococcus Aureus ( Mrsa )
Background
Staphylococcus aureus is a gram–positive, cluster forming bacterium which shows positive results
in catalase and nitrate reduction tests. It is considered as a harmful pathogen for human and animal
beings and has resistance to many classes of antimicrobial agents. The most important example is
methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), the first clinical isolate, reported at the end of
1960, within a year after the introduction of methicillin (Jevons et al., 1963). Afterwards, it has been
frequently disseminated throughout the world and reported serious hospital associated infections in
1970s.Several MRSA clones have emerged in past four decades, but major hospital–acquired MRSA
(HA–MRSA)clones identified in five accepted clonal lineages by population genetic studies.
Genotypes within these lineages have developed resistance to all known antibiotics. Besides, some
significant risk factors, like surgery, recent hospitalization and antimicrobial treatment have
potential roles in HA–MRSA infection in patients.
While MRSA primarily confined to hospitals and patients along with defined risk factors, reports on
community–associated MRSA (CA–MRSA) in patients began to publish in early 2000s (Zetola et
al., 2005). CA–MRSA isolates identified as a rapidly emerging pathogen and frequently occurred in
previously healthy individuals without the risk factors for HA–MRSA. CA–MRSA isolates are
much more virulent than HA–MRSA that cause rapid tissue necrosis and

Laboratory Testing Of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus...
LABORATORY TESTING OF METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS
36.512 Medical Bacteriology INTRODUCTION Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) is a major cause of hospital acquired and life–threatening infections. It has also emerged
recently as a cause of community–acquired infections. MRSA strains were first detected shortly
after the introduction of methicillin in the early 1960s. Methicillin resistance in staphylococci is
mediated by an altered penicillin–binding protein (PBP2a), which confers resistance to beta–lactam
antibiotics and is encoded by the mecA gene on the mobile element, staphylococcal cassette
chromosome mec (SCCmec). There are a variety of methods in diagnostic microbiology laboratories
to identify ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are considered to be an important cornerstone in preventing the spread of MRSA in health care
settings. New PCR–based high throughput typing methods offer a rapid turnaround time, with lower
costs and in many cases high discriminatory power. However, these are very expensive and cannot
be afforded by all laboratories. Moreover, these require technical equipment limiting their use only
in developed centers. DISCUSSION Typing of MRSA is an essential requirement to prevent its
transmission and also to determine the precautionary and preventive measures which needs to be
taken. Raman spectroscopy (SpectraCellRA) is a recently developed tool for bacterial typing.
Recently, many new technologies have been introduced into clinical microbiology laboratories for
the rapid identification of microorganisms such as matrix–assisted laser desorption ionization–time
of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI–TOFMS) which are aimed at reducing the delay in providing
useful information to the clinicians regarding patient care. There is an alternative, cost–effective
approach which is the use of chromogenic media for screening nasal specimens such as BBL
CHROMagar MRSA II (CMRSA II, BD), MRSASelect and Spectra MRSA which are used for the
qualitative detection of MRSA. These chromogenic media are very selective and differential for
MRSA. These media are used for the suppression of Gram–negative

Interventions and Care for Patients
Evidence Based Practice Paper
Evidence–based practice uses current research and clinical judgment to provide interventions and
care for patients (Kelly, 2012). It is important for nurses and all healthcare team members to be up to
date on current practices so patients can receive evidence–based interventions that improve clinical
outcomes. According to Kelly (2012), almost half of patients that receive care, receive interventions
that are not based on evidence which can ultimately compromise the safety of patients and their
health outcomes. Peripheral intravenous therapy (PIV) is a common practice in the acute care setting
and evidence–based practices have been established to drive appropriate care for this intervention.
Almost all patients that are admitted into the acute care setting require peripheral intravenous
therapy. PIV therapy is an important factor in the care of patients in the hospital and it is most often
used to maintain or correct fluid and electrolyte balances, administer medications, and replace blood
or blood products (Ignatavicius and Workman, 2013). PIV therapy is an invasive therapy that
requires catheter insertion into the vascular system and access is gained through the patient's skin.
Because this is an invasive procedure, patients are at a risk of developing catheter related infections.
Catheter related infections are preventable and as nurses it is our responsibility to maintain the PIV
site and use the appropriate protocols and interventions to

Staphylococcus aureas versus Methicillin Resistant...
From Staphylococcus aureus to MRSA
Abstract
I investigated the difference between Staphylococcus aureas and its super bacteria form of
Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureas. I used books, websites, and scholarly projects to
understand the topic at a molecular level. After researching penicillin, Staphylococcus aureas, and
Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureas, I found that both the drug and the bacteria use enzymes
as their defense and attack mechanism. Penicillin uses a ß–lactam ring as a substrate to clog the
active site of transpeptidase, and in defense, the bacteria uses ß–lactamase to break down the ß–
lactam ring. I hope to continue research on super bacteria to determine whether or not other super
bacteria ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
B–lactam Antibiotics and Bacteria
To understand how MRSA works against antibiotics, we must first look at the cell wall and how
antibiotics work. The cell wall is designed to maintain the cell's shape and to keep the inner
workings of the bacteria safe. Without a cell wall, the bacteria could not survive. The wall of a
bacterial cell can fit into two major categories: gram–positive and gram–negative. Staphylococcus
aureas is a common example of a gram–positive bacteria. Gram–positive bacteria is made up of
polymer layers of peptidoglycan connected by amino acid bridges. Peptidoglycan is a polymer made
of Nacetylglucosamine and N–acetyl–muraminic acid, or for the purpose of convenience,
NAG and NAMA. [6] These layers of polymers are cross–linked with amino acids as shown in the
diagram below. The polymers are connected and layered by an enzyme known as transpeptidase.
The enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the reaction that cross–links the cell wall to make it strong.
[1] Making the cell wall is easily one of the most basic and essential processes that takes place.
[6]
Penicillin and Methicillin, two antibiotics used to treat Staphylococcus aureas, are known as ß–
lactam antibiotics. They prevent the bacteria from forming a cell wall.[1] The
NAM of the peptidoglycan leaves residue of D–alanyl–D–alanine which bind to the transpeptidase
in order to cross–link the chain. ß–lactam antibiotics

Essay On Mrsa
MRSA is a type of bacteria that infect human beings and resist most of antibiotics. Once infected by
MRSA, it proves to be difficult for treatment. The strain in MRSA is the one responsible for
resistance to treatment with the antibiotic such as penicillin, Oxacillin and amoxicillin found in
hospitals and it is referred to us as Methicillin Resistance Strain. MRSA acquires genes once it is in
human body and this trait that makes it antibiotic resistance (Paterson, Harrison, & Holmes, 2014).
Some of the infections that Staphylococcus aureus can cause are pneumonia, bone infections,
bacterium and infection on soft tissues. Almost every one carries Staphylococcus aureus on the
nostrils, skin and throat. The areas that MRSA infection brings ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
These strains have developed resistant to commonly used antibiotics in the hospitals (Holden et al.,
2013).Quite a number of people carry staphylococcal bacteria without any harm on their bodies.
MRSA can be transmitted through skin to skin contact with an infected person or a person who has
MRSA bacterium but not infected. These bacteria can also be spread through contact with objects
such as clothes and other physical objects if they had had contact with MRSA infected person too.
Risk factors Patients with weak immune system such as HIV patients and cancer are highly exposed
to MRSA infection. The open wounded body and skin ulcers parts have high risk of infection.
Medical instruments such as tubes and needles can be a channel for MRSA to get to people in
contact with them. Those individuals who carry MRSA but not affected can transmit it to others in
nursing homes. Individuals who have undergone surgery are also under risk of infection. Since
MRSA is resistant to antibiotics, patients who have been regularly using antibiotics are also at risk
of infection (Stryjewski, 2014). For the community strain MRSA, the infection can be transmitted
while in games through body cuts or skin contact. Since prisons are crowded, there is high risk of
infection in case of MRSA epidemic. Poor individual and facilities hygiene risks the infection of
MRSA.
Symptoms of MRSA Symptoms of MRSA largely depend on the part of the body that is infected.
Most of the people carrying

Case Study: The Pharmacology Of Ceftobiprole
Introduction Widespread resistance to our arsenal of antibiotics is no longer a threat – it is reality.
The emergence and spread of methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus, penicillin–resistant
Streptococcus pneumoniae and penicillin– and vancomycin–resistant enterococci coupled with a
paucity of safe and effective agents for treatment of infections caused by these organisms threatens
the transformative effect antibiotics have had on modern medicine. On 10 November 2015, the
novel fifth generation cephalosporin ceftobiprole (Zevtera, Basilea Pharmaceutica) was registered
in Australia for the treatment of both community– and hospital–acquired pneumonia in adults(1).
Pharmacology of Ceftobiprole Ceftobiprole is a fifth–generation cephalosporin ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Taste disturbance is an anticipated event based on cleavage of the prodrug to produce diacetyl, a
molecule known to have a caramel–buttery taste when used as a food additive(4). These symptoms
occurred more commonly in patients who received higher doses(15) and patients who were treated
with shorter infusion regimens(4). Table 1 lists the adverse reactions from clinical studies and post–
marketing reports by frequency. Precautions As ceftobiprole is primarily cleared by the kidneys,
dose adjustment is recommended in both moderate to severe renal impairment and augmented renal
function (creatinine clearance [CLcr] >150 mL/min), see Table 2. In vitro studies have shown that
ceftobiprole inhibits the OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 membrane transport proteins and hence may
increase concentrations of drugs eliminated by OATP1B1 and OATP1B3, such as statins
(pravastatin, rosuvastatin), glyburide and bosentan(16). No clinical interaction studies have been
performed, so caution is advised when ceftobiprole is administered together with drugs with narrow
therapeutic indices. The safety and efficacy of ceftobiprole has not been established in children and
adolescents below the age of 18 and pregnant women and therefore its use is not recommended in
these

Different Types Of MRSA
MRSA stands for Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus and is a bacteria that causes
infectious open wounds on the skin. MRSA is particularly dangerous because it is resistant to most
types of antibiotics, and is easily transmittable throughout the general public. There are two types of
MRSA: HA–MRSA: which is healthcare–associated MRSA; and CA–MRSA: which is community–
associated MRSA. The signs, symptoms, and treatment are all similar between the two different
types of MRSA ("MRSA Overview," 1995). While resistant to most antibiotics, there are treatment
options, however, prevention is the most important step.
Staphylococcus aureus is a specific type of "staph" bacteria that causes a range of infections, such as
infection of an open ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If the infected wound is mild and has not infected the internal body, antibiotics may not be needed.
The treatment will only include the wound being cut and drained. If the infection is more severe and
antibiotics are needed, there are newer types the can be used. MRSA has been shown to respond
well to drugs such as vancomycin, ceftaroline, and daptomycin. Rarely, a MRSA infection has been
shown to become resistant to vancomycin, and progresses to diseases termed "VRSA." If this
happens, a combination of antibiotics will be used. The treatment plan can be more successful if a
material sample is obtained, as the culture can be tested to see which antibiotics it will respond to.
The antibiotics course needs to be completed in full, even if symptoms disappear. If the course is not
completed and the MRSA bacteria is still in the body, the infection is come back and become
resistant to the antibiotics originally used. This is how MRSA becomes more dangerous and less
susceptible to more and more antibiotics throughout time. The prognosis of patients infected with
MRSA ranges and depends on the severity of the infection. If the infection was mild, patients almost
always recover full and obtain 100% of their health back. For infections that advance to deeper
infections, for patients that were infected with H–MRSA, or for patients that have other health
complications such as diabetes, the prognosis is not as positive. There

Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Essay
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Staphylococcus aureus is an important and common
pathogen in humans. It is found in the nose or on the skin of many healthy, asymptomatic persons
(i.e., carriers) and can cause infections with clinical manifestations ranging from pustules to sepsis
and death. Most transmission occurs through the contaminated hands of a person infected with or
carrying S. aureus. MRSA infections frequently are encountered in health–care settings (Lowy,
1998). A common cause of blood–stream infections, pneumonia, endocarditits, skin and soft tissue
infections, and bone and joint infections, S. aureus infection is often associated with significant
morbidity and mortality. S. aureus is well adapted to the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Studies have shown that the rate at which MRSA colonizes and infects patients is significantly
correlated with the amount and nature of the antibiotics prescribed in clinics (van Belkum, 2001).
Cookson (2002) wrote that although community–onset MRSA infections have been reported
recently, little is known about their epidemiology or prevalence of carriage. Community outbreaks
have occurred among injection–drug users; aboriginals in Canada, New Zealand, and Australia;
Native Americans/Alaska Natives in the United States; and players of close–contact sports.
Reported most commonly have been uncomplicated skin infections; however, community–acquired
MRSA infections can be severe In his article, Cookson refers to a Center for Disease Control report
of a 1999 outbreak of community–acquired MRSA in which four children in Minnesota and North
Dakota died (Center for Disease Control, 1999). Disease transmission can occur easily among
inmates at correctional facilities, where skin or soft tissue infections are recognized problems. Close
contact among inmates may place them at increased risk for transmission of skin–colonizing or
skin–infecting organisms. To prevent skin disease, all inmates should practice good personal
hygiene, including daily showers, should avoid touching wounds or drainage of others and should
have access to sinks and plain soap. Personnel that

Jc Risk Assessment Paper
Preventable infections regardless of the causative agent, have become major triggers of unintended
patient outcome, increased morbidity, and mortality (Arias, 2010). Methicillin Sensitive
Staphylococcus Aureus (MSSA) and Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) are the
most common causes of healthcare associated infections (HAI) and outbreaks in acute care hospitals
and community settings (CADTH, 2010). The widespread infection with the MRSA pathogen is
believed to have increased from 2.4 percent in 1975 to 29 percent in 1991 and 2003 in hospitals
across the United States (U S) (CADTH, 2010). The prevalence is even greater among Intensive
Care Unit (ICU) patients at 53 percent (CADTH, 2010) and continues to rise due to the widespread
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The unit utilizes an evidence–based testing and pre–surgical evaluation processes, thereby making it
ideal to do the required assessment, testing, and treatment effectively. Although, there continues to
be resistance from some surgeons, majority are taking notice of the major impacts of inadequate
pre–operative patient preparation. The JC risk assessment recommendations dictate institutions are
responsible to reduce infections caused by Multi Drug Resistant Organisms (MDRO) and the initial
occurrence of an epidemiologically significant organism (2016). One of the interventions the JC
recommend is an active surveillance cultures (ASC) for those who are at risk of developing MRSA
and other MDROs (2016). The CDC also indicated an aggressive control and surveillance measures
through ASC reduces the prevalence of MRSA in general and MRSA related SSIs (2006) while the
JC guidelines in the IC.01.05.01 EP outlined the need to utilize EBP when developing infection
prevention and control protocols (2016).

Antibiotic Resistance Is A Growing Problem Throughout The...
Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem throughout the globe. Besides using antibiotics for
medical use, they are being used in the agriculture industry. In animals, antibiotics are being used to
treat diseases, but also to prevent diseases from occurring and to increase the growth of animals
(Mehndiratta, 2014, p.340). In recent years, the evidence of farmers using antibiotics for non–
traditional ways has sparked major controversy. In agriculture 90% of antibiotics are used for
growth–promoting and prophylactic agents with the other 10% being used to treat diseases
(Khachatourians, 1998, p.2). To understand why this occurs, we first must understand the genetic
basis for antibiotic resistance and the occurrence of antibiotic resistance in selected organisms. By
farmers doing this an increase in the number and types of microorganisms resistant to drugs, has
increased public health problems. Finally, management options for reducing antibiotics in the
environment have to occur. If farmers continue to use antibiotics for non–traditional uses, as humans
we can be affected greatly not just by food supply, but by water runoff, the air, and even the soil.
Also, more public health problems will occur.
However, to completely understand the effects of antibiotic resistance, we need to understand the
genetic component of how bacteria becomes resistant. An antibiotic can operate at different sites
within the bacterial cell, some infect the cell wall or the membranes, making it

Mrsa Case Study
Innovative Teaching In 1961, soon after the introduction of methicillin, the first β–lactamase–
resistant penicillin, strains of Staphylococcus aureus that were resistant to methicillin were
identified in the United Kingdom. From the 1960s into the early 1970s, MRSA infections in Europe
were limited largely to hospital outbreaks caused predominantly by S. aureus phage type 83A
(subsequently identified to be sequence type 250; this so–called "archaic clone" gradually became
infrequent and was replaced in the 1970s and 1980s by five prevalent clonal lineages, although
many MRSA backgrounds existed between the 1960s and 2000. The terms Community–Acquired
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA–MRSA) and hospital acquired Methicillin
Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA–MRSA) have been used to call attention both to the genotypic
differences of certain MRSA isolates as well as to the epidemiological and clinical features of the ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"In 2000, the CDC created a case definition for a CA–MRSA infection: any MRSA infection
diagnosed for an outpatient or within 48 hours of hospitalization if the patient lacks the following
health care–associated MRSA risk factors: hemodialysis, surgery, residence in a long–term care
facility or hospitalization during the previous year, the presence of an indwelling catheter or a
percutaneous device at the time of culture, or previous isolation of MRSA from the

Mrsa Research Paper
Candace Byler
9/14/2014
Article Summary #1
Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus, or MRSA, is a bacterium that is resistant to many
available high– level beta–lactam antibiotics, which include penicillins, "antistaphylococcal"
penicillins and cephalosporins. Staphyloccoci are the most important bacteria that cause disease in
humans. MRSA is sometimes branded as a nosocomial infection as it usually plagues patients that
are receiving treatment in a hospital. The skin is the most common site of infection, where MRSA
can cause cellulitis, folliculitis, or boils in the skin, but can also commonly be found in the nose,
underarm, groin, upper respiratory tract, intestine, vagina and rectal areas of the body. MRSA
infections occur with there is a break in the skin that allows the Methicillin resistant ... Show more
Cultures are an effective way of guiding the Infectious Disease specialist to which antibiotics that
are to be used to treat the patient with MRSA by looking at the type of strain that the patient has.
The culture can also be tested for susceptibility to a variety of antibiotics. Surgery may be required
to debride and drain the pus filled skin from the infected area, while antibiotics, such as
vancomycin, linezolid, daptomycin, quinupristin/dalfopristin, clindomycin (as well as many other
sulfa drugs and tetracyclines) could be prescribed to help eradicate the infection. Some antibiotics
that are used to treat MRSA are only available intravenously. Unfortunately, some high–powered
antibiotics are developing resistance to MRSA infections. Because of this, Vancomycin is no longer
a sure treatment for MRSA due to questions surrounding its effectiveness. Patients that are
prescribed antibiotics should never stop taking their antibiotics, even if they are starting to feel
better. These infections are extremely dormant and are prone to reoccur if they develop resistance to
the

Literature Research Paper Example
Literature Search Paper 1 Running head: LITERATURE SEARCH PAPER Literature Search Paper
Misty S. Davis The University of Tennessee, Knoxville College of Nursing Literature Search
Paper 2 Literature Search Paper Research allows an individual to investigate a subject in order to
discover facts and theories. The facts learned from the research are applied to his or her everyday
use. There are various databases found that assists with research, however not all provide researched
and scientific data. As a baccalaureateprepared nurse, it is critical to use a database that provides
scientific data in means of articles and journals. The Cumulative Index to Nursing and Applied
Health (CINAHL) is a comprehensive database search ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The search results were somehow limited. It was apparent that my search was not providing me with
relevant data, so I then changed my keyword to "handwashing" where I found 3,087 Literature
Search Paper 3 articles. Again, the search was very limited. Realizing the need to narrow the search,
I then used the CINAHL Subject Headings as a component for my search. Subject Heading Search
Keeping note that the keyword retrieval left me with 3,087 articles, I then used CINAHL Headings
for my search. The CINAHL Heading search allows the search of literature with certain terms
desired in the references. By typing "hand washing" under the CINAHL Heading and browsed, I
was given terms that were related to hand washing. The terms were ranked based on the relevancy
of importance related to the subject. Handwashing was the first term found and by clicking on its
link, I was taken to a term detailed screen. Listed was handwashing under the "Tree View" terms,
which are hierarchy groupings of subject headings. The subheadings were also found here. I chose
handwashing and infection control. By clicking on the subheadings and the "Explode" link, I then
gained access to articles that contained terms about handwashing or infection control. The
"Explode" link is thought of as an operators of "OR". It is used to find articles containing the
keyword or other words as chosen. Once I exploded handwashing with infection control, I found
myself with 1,626 articles

Essay On Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus
Methicillin–Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, or MRSA, is a form of bacteria that can be found on
the skin, hair, nose and throats of humans and animals (Foodsafety.gov, 2015). This bacteria is a
strain of the wild– type Staphylococcus Aureus. According to Merriam Webster's Dictionary,
Staphylococcus comes from the Greek staphylē, meaning bunch of grapes, and the New Latin suffix
–coccus. Aureus comes from the Latin root meaning gold, or golden (Merriam–Webster, 2015). This
can be directly related to the characteristics of the bacteria because it can be found in grape–like
clusters. In addition, it is found to have a golden tint when it is grown on a petri dish. Founded in
1961, this form of bacteria is resistant to the antibiotics, such as ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
It was the only bacteria that had an effect on both the wild–type and methicillin–resistant bacteria.
More specifically, it was the most effective against the wild–type bacteria. It had a mean ZOI of
20.8 mm, whereas, in the methicillin resistant bacteria it had a mean of 11.8 mm. In addition,
vancomycin had the smallest standard deviation in each experiment, therefore, the values of each
ZOI were not too far from the mean. Thus, because there was a small amount of variation between
each value, the measurements stayed consistent. In addition, vancomycin was not the only bacteria
that was effective against the bacteria. XR21347 was effective against the methicillin–resistant with
a mean ZOI of 12.7 mm, and Methicillin was effective against the wild–type with a mean ZOI of
23.3 mm. All in all, based on our results vancomycin was the only antibiotic that had an effect
against on both bacteria, therefore, we consider it to be the most effective. However, one could do
further research by observing the effects of this antibiotic when used in the human body. By doing
so one could verify that the vancomycin antibiotic is the most effective against staphylococcus

MRSA : The Relentless Superbug
MRSA: The Relentless Superbug
Staphylococcus aureus is a gram positive coccus shaped bacterium which is also a facultative
anaerobe. S. aureus belongs to the phylum Firmicutes, though S. aureus does not produce
endospores. Staphylococcus aureus adheres to the epidermis by utilizing a system similar to viral
attachment (Tortora,2016).
S. aureus usually exists in a commensal relationship with humans and is considered to be part of
normal flora. S. aureus was first identified in the 1880s, and it was able to induce a contagious skin
infection which could develop into bacterial pneumonia or sepsis. In the 1940s, the standard
treatment for Staphylococcus aureus was penicillin. During the 1940s, Staphylococcus aureus was
consistently responsive towards penicillin (Walters,2015). The amplified use of penicillin
encouraged the evolution of Staphylococcus aureus to become resistant to penicillin during the late
1940s and into the 1950s (History,2016). The lessened impact of penicillin led to the demand for
Methicillin, the first semisynthetic antistaphloccal penicillin, which was introduced in 1959
(Carrel,2015). Methicillin was originally marketed as "Celbenin." In October of 1960, Dr. Patricia
Jevons of the Staphylococcus Reference Library in London, isolated four colonies of methicillin–
resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Dr. Jevon isolated these methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus
aureus strains less than 2 years after methicillin became available (Jevons,1961).

The Reflection Of Teamwork In The Nursing Team
I always knew that teamwork makes the most difficult work easier. Working in a team has always
been a great experience for me. I like the fact that the nursing program makes us work in a team. I
have been working in a different team in my several other classes such as Microbiology, Anatomy
and English including HPR. I have been enjoying working as a team with my different classmates.
Learning has been a fun as a team. With regard to the nursing course, HPR is one of the subjects in
which I have been assigned with my other four classmates to work for the team project presentation.
My other four classmates named Brittani C., Ashely, Brittani M., and Mich worked together for a
group presentation of the nosocomial disease. The main objective of our group is to create
awareness regarding one of the nosocomial disease called MRSA (Methicillin Resistant
Staphylococcus Aureus). The learning experience with a group was effective in a way that the tasks
were divided among four of us. The task was divided in a way that each one of us was responsible
for the research of required information. Research was divided into statistic, case study, sign and
symptoms, risk factors and prevention measures. All five of us picked one topic to research. My role
in the team was to find the supporting information regarding symptoms. Nevertheless, we worked in
a team to find all the required information needed to support our presentation. Working on a team
and contributing as a valuable member of the team is very important for the success of the team. We
worked as a strong team in the lead of Mich who provided us a clear division of task and maintained
strong communication within the team member. As a valuable member of the team, I also helped my
team by collecting required information about MRSA, making posters for the presentation and
participating in every meeting. I also made sure that information regarding meetings and agenda to
be discussed was well understood by the group. I completed my role by participating in group
discussion regarding our presentation topic, required information on a topic and preparing the
presentation material. However, the success of our team is the result of our teamwork and
collaboration. Teamwork

Response To Cefazolin: A Case Study
Kayla has not responded to cefazolin because, as indicated by her lab results, she has Methicillin–
resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This specific type of Staphylococcus aureus does not respond to
methicillin, and therefore does not respond cefazolin (a β–lactum antibiotic). Methicillin–resistant
Staphylococcus aureus is similar to regular hospital acquired MRSA in that it is resistant to
cefazolin and antibiotics similar to cefazolin. However, it differs from MRSA in that it doesn't
display MRSA's common risk factors, and is susceptible to other various antibiotics.
Doctor Collins should immediately switch Kayla's medication to one that treats MRSA such as
Trimethroprim or vancomycin.
Part lll
As evident by their extremely similar banding patterns, isolates 1 and 2 are alike. However they
differ from Lanes 3–5 which are all pediatric patients and additionally all have alike banding
patterns. Kayla's banding patterns match that of the other pediatric patients, and is most similar to
lane 5. However, her bands are a bit thinner in comparison. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This similarity is tenable seeing that Kayla was later confirmed to have had Methicillin–resistant
Staphylococcus aureus, and is a pediatric patient that originally showed no signs of MRSA.
If a DNA banding pattern is identical to another, they both are susceptible and resistant to the same
antibiotics. A resistance to β– lactum antibiotics to S. aureus is attributed to the mecA gene,
therefore all patients infected with MRSA do not respond to β– lactum antibiotics. However, slight
differences in banding patterns of these bacterias can alter the way the isolates react to other
antibiotics, making some strains of MRSA resistant to an antibiotic, and other

Essay On Mrsa
In 1961, British scientists gathered together and conducted tons of hours of research that soon after
started developing and creating information of a very new strain of staphylococcus bacteria; which
is resistant towards antibiotics in specific the methicillin antibiotic. Starting from the year 1960 all
the way through to 1967, this bacterium swept through Western Europe and Australia causing an
enormous amount of deaths. Then in 1968, the very first documented case of this strain had occurred
in the United States. Becoming more aware and knowledgeable of this disease, it is reported that this
bacteria is so common that one out of every three people contain the strain inside the nose or even
on the surface of the skin. Individuals ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If MRSA is developed then life threatening infections could most likely occur in the bones, joints,
surgical cites, wounds, bloodstream, heart valves, and the lungs (Cuomo,2010). According, to
doctors and scientists all over the world it is concluded with evidence that the strain Staphylococcus
aureus is methicillin resistant because of the way individuals abuse the antibiotics and take high
dosages when not needed nor prescribed by an attending physician or professional. Because of the
high death mortality rate and the danger that this bacterium poses, it is very important to understand
the different aspects of this strain, including the causative agent, how the pathogen affects the body,
and also how the body fights this strain in order to properly protect individuals from this strain
(MRSA,2015). The causative agent is a very important key factor in order to get an insight on
exactly what specific bacteria and living organisms are associated with MRSA. MRSA has
developed its name because it was first found to be only resistant towards the methicillin antibiotic.
The MRSA infection is a type of Staphylococcus bacterium that comes from the staphylococcus
aureus species. S. aureus bacteria contain many strains that with time have developed a resistance
towards beta–lactam antibiotics, including penicillin and cephalosporin

Methicillin-Resistant Mythoiccus Aureus (MRSA)
Antibiotic resistance which can be defined as the ability of bacteria and other microorganisms to
resist the effects of an antibiotic to which they were once sensitive.8 Antibiotic resistance mainly
results from misuse of antibiotics which can be categorized as intensive and extended use of
antibiotics in human and veterinary treatments where antibiotics were not required and improper
disposal of antibiotics in both hospital environment and community which in turn results an
environmental impact too.
Among the resistant bacterial strains Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) is the
major resistant pathological strain which is resistant to almost all antibiotics available in the world
in turn very difficult to cure and life threatening. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Intrinsic resistance is achieved by spontaneous gene mutation through replication where acquired
resistance results as an adaptation technique when bacteria in contact with antibiotic. Pathogenic
bacteria can gain resistance through several mechanisms such as acquire modification of active site
of the bacteria in turn results in reduction in the efficacy of binding of the drug, direct modification
or destruction of antibiotic by enzymes produced by bacteria or efflux of antibiotic from the
bacterial cell through efflux pumps. Bacterial species accomplish spreading the resistance through
horizontal gene transfer mechanisms such as transformation, transduction and conjugation via
plasmids.
Antibiotic resistance has evolved as a result of the interactions between bacteria and antibiotic after
an antibiotic exposure. Bacterial species are capable of adapting to new antibiotic as simply as they
adapt to new environments due to their amazing genomic plasticity. This in turn results antibiotic
resistance to be very dynamic and unpredictable. "Every year, almost 100,000 Americans die from
antibiotic–resistant infections acquired from hospitals, largely because of the reduced effectiveness
of existing drugs, due to the development and propagation of drug resistance

Of The Pattern Of Microbial Growth Of Staphchooccus Aureus...
Demographic Data – The data of this study revealed more patients were male 54.5% than female
45.5% (Figure 1). Maximum 112 (23%) patients belonged to 20–31 year age group and minimum 50
(10%) were from 0–10 year age group (Figure 2).
Pattern of Microbial Growth with sample – Altogether 488 samples were collected from admitted
patients. Of them, 267 (54.8%) showed positive growth and rest of them showed no growth (Figure
3). From the positive growth, 226 (85%) were Gram positive and 41 (15%) were Gram negative
isolates (Figure 4).
Distribution of samples with Staphylococcus aureus isolates – Isolates were obtained from wide
variety of clinical specimens. The highest number of isolates were from throat swab samples i.e. 104
(49.5%) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
DISCUSSION
The data presented in the study showed trends in antibiotic resistance patterns of methicillin–
resistant and methicillin–sensitive Staphylococcus aureus in KYAMCH at Enayetpur, Sirajgonj,
teaching and referral hospital of Bangladesh.
Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the major pathogens associated with
community–acquired serious nosocomial infection because these strains generally show multiple
drug resistance which limits treatment possibilities (7).
In this study, the isolation rate of MRSA on gender basis revealed more from male (54.5%) than
female (45.5%). Persons younger than 30 years of age were found to be more MRSA carrier 112
(23%) and less found among below 10 years of age 50 (10%) (Figure –2). Our age and gender based
findings did not agree with those findings obtained by other studies where no significant variations
were noticed. (8). Population of this study is villagers of working group (30 years) who are
financially important. Through medical care they became subject of this study. On the contrary,
other studies are carried out in the city where all residents irrespective of gender and age are equally
receiving medical care.
In our study, the highest number of Staphylococcus aureus isolates were from throat swab samples
104 (49.5%) followed by pus 44 (20.9%) (Figure 5–a). Similar study of Tamilnadu in India as high
as 35.7% of MRSA strains were obtained from throat swabs and 33.6% of strains were

Essay On Mrsa
Methicillin–Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, commonly known as MRSA, is a relevant infectious
bacterium to the healthcare field today due to its resistance to many antibiotics. MRSA is a gram–
positive organism that is most commonly transmitted through skin to skin contact with others who
are carriers of this strain. Patients in hospitals and nursing homes are at higher risk for acquiring this
bacteria with symptoms that range from a skin infection to sepsis. MRSA is an infectious disease
that is continuously on the rise due to the increased rate of antibiotics being prescribed. These
bacteria have gone from being Methicillin–Resistant to multiple drug resistance, making them
deadlier than ever. MRSA is a relatively new multi–drug ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Today there is not an outbreak or CDC Watchlist for this infectious bacterium, however, there are
always cases popping up throughout the community, commonly in younger ages where hygiene is
poorly practiced and in healthcare settings. MRSA can be acquired in two common ways,
community–acquired or hospital–acquired. In hospital–acquired settings, Methicillin–Resistant S.
aureus is typically spread through breaks in the skin, either accidentally or surgically, through
contact of objects that an infected person came in contact with or through cough particles from those
who have the infection in their lungs. Patients with compromised immune systems can be more
likely to acquire MRSA in the hospital. Community–acquired MRSA is spread through exposure to
others known as carriers, meaning they show no symptoms but carry this deadly bacterium either on
their skin or in their nasal passage. This form of MRSA is actually more dangerous because it is
more likely to have acquired multiple drug resistance. The most common symptoms of this disease
include a skin infection resulting in, pus–filled abscesses, boils or cellulitis. These symptoms are
usually associated with fevers, chills, and pain at the site of infection. If not discovered or treated
quickly, MRSA can be very invasive causing severe complications by infecting major organs,
causing gangrene, and even sepsis.

Staphylococcus Aureus, Or Mrsa
Methicillin–resistant staphylococcus aureus, or MRSA is a possibly fatal strain of Staph aureus that
is resistant to many antibiotics. MRSA is unable to be killed by all beta–lactam antibiotics. This
includes all penicillin's and cephalosporin's. There are two known type of MRSA. The most
common type is nosocomial MRSA or HA–MRSA. Which is a strain found in hospitals, nursing
homes, ect. The second type is community acquired MRSA or CA–MRSA. This strain of MRSA
infects individuals who have not been in a hospital setting and are typically quite healthy
(Minnesota Department of Health). With each type there are differences and the ways they are
transmitted. When it comes to the nosocomial MRSA hospitalized patients are at higher risk for
becoming infected. Many hospitalized patients have IVs, catheters, and surgical openings that make
them very susceptible to becoming infected. The bacteria can enter into underlying tissue and it
becomes very easy for the patients to become infected. Also, quite a few patients are taking some
sort of antibiotic and this reduces the natural flora of the body and that makes it easy for the bacteria
to enter the body and cause an infection. Some of the signs and symptoms of patients with HA–
MRSA includes: abscesses, cellulitis, or other skin and soft tissue infections. Most of the abscesses
are filled with pus, red–swollen area surrounding it, and also may be warm to the touch (Minnesota
Department of Health). The abscess is usually very

Antibiotic Resistance : Antibiotics And Antibiotics
Elsie Gutierrez
BIO 120 Lab Section 1315
14 October 2015
Title
Introduction
When an individual gets sick from a bacterial infection, antibiotics have undoubtedly changed the
lives of many people by saving them from death (Davies, 2010). Since the discovery of antibiotics,
scientists have been finding ways to improve the effectiveness of antibiotics. For the past decades,
there's been an alarming increase of antibiotic resistance globally (Witte, 2006). Antibiotics should
ideally get rid of infectious diseases but instead the bacteria are finding ways to fight back. A
bacterium that has persistently become more resistant to antibiotics is Staphylococcus aureus and is
more deadly compared to other disease causing bacteria (Naber, 2009). S. aureus is often found in
hospitals and infects patients most frequently partly due to the bacterium being found on one out of
every two people (Bud, 2007 p. 118). This bring up the concern of bacterial resistance and the
potency of antibiotics in the future. How will scientists, physicians, or patients fight off bacterial
infections if the bacteria are becoming resilient against the medicine that should kill them? Even
though bacteria are more resistant, antibiotics can still be effective towards the pathogenic bacteria.
Penicillin has been noted as the one of the most significant finding in medical history (Bud, 2007 p.
1). Since it's serendipitous discovery, penicillin is used to combat illnesses in patients in a quick and
efficient

Comparative Analysis Of Antibiotic Growth Of...
Matthew Crane
Lab Section: 13151
Comparative Analysis of Antibiotic Growth Suppression of Staphylococcus Aureus
Introduction
Staphylococcus Aureus is a gram negative bacterium that may be pathogenic or exist as a
commensal organism in humans. Unevolved strains are susceptible to nearly all antibiotics
(Chambers & DeLeo, 2009). Among the many antibiotic options, penicillin is particularly effective
against S. Aureus. This is due to the mechanism of action by which penicillin replaces key structures
in the bacterial cell wall that are essential to growth and repair. By preventing this cell maintenance,
penicillin promotes osmotic instability in the cell and greatly increases the likelihood of cell death
(Strominger & Tipper 1965). In a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Recent research by Khokhlova et al. found that MRSA cases among S. Aureus isolates across
Siberia were found at a rate of 22% in hospitals, compared to a community infection rate of 2.9%
(2015). Traditional antibiotic treatments such as penicillin are often proven ineffective in these
cases, as in the case of Fomda et al., which found a resistance rate of 85.46% at a tertiary care
hospital (2014). The goal of this experiment is to determine whether different antibiotics will inhibit
bacterial growth of S. Aureus. The hypothesis is that all three antibiotics used (penicillin,
gentamicin, and kanamycin) will inhibit growth. If a zone of inhibition is observed around each
antibiotic disk, then the hypothesis will be supported – demonstrating the bacteria's susceptibility to
the subject antibiotics. By demonstrating the efficacy of various different antibiotics and comparing
them to one another in context of the target bacteria, combined with the gram stain results of S.
Aureus, the results may be further analyzed and explained.
Methods
Five agar plates were prepared with evenly distributed S. Aureus bacteria. After being marked into
four equal quadrants, an antibiotic disk was gently placed in each section of each plate. The levels of
treatment in the 4 disks were 10 micrograms of gentamicin, 10 micrograms of penicillin, and 30
micrograms of kanamycin, with a control group of an identical

Staphylococcus Aureus : A Type Of Penicillin
Mitchell Okula
Methicillin–Resistant S. aureus
Introduction
Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium that infects of the skin of an animal that creates horrific pain
to the host. The name is broken down into three parts in Latin. "Staphyle" meaning "a bunch of
grapes", coccus which means "spherical bacterium" and aureus which best means "golden or gold–
colored." This name came about in Latin because when looked at under a microscope, the bacteria
are all clumped together like grapes on a vine and the color is gold. (Harper n.d.) This bacterium is
Gram–positive meaning that within the walls of the cell, peptidoglycan exceptionally thick.
(Bruckner 2012) (PHAC 2012) A different strain of this bacterium called MRSA (Methicillin–
Resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is a bigger problem because it is unaffected by a type of penicillin,
Methicillin. The first known sighting this particular resistant strain was first documented in 1961 by
British scientists in England. (NiAID NIH 2008) Penicillin is used to create antibiotics because it in
a way interferes with the cell wall of the strain and weakens it causing it to loose structure and die.
By a strain becoming resistant, it learns the make–up of the antibiotic to change itself for the best
chance of survival. (Tufts EDU 2014)
Methods
This experiment was done to better understand what types of antibiotics do well against the strain of
S. aureus, MRSA. The experiment consisted of various types of antibiotics to see if there would be
any

Routine Treatment For MRSA
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus; MRSA
According to the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH) Staphylococcus Aureus
(S. Aureus) was first discovered in the 1880s. The S. Aureus infection caused pain on site, boils, and
scaled skin. The S. Aureus infection can cause bacterial pneumonia or bacteria in the blood stream
which can have fatal effects. In the 1940s the use of the antibiotics such as penicillin became a
routine treatment for the infection. The consistent treatment using antibiotics lead to the bacteria
evolving and becoming resistant to the drugs that were fighting the bacteria. In the late 1950s
scientist developed methicillin, which is a form of penicillin, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
aureus bacteria has developed strains that are resistant to Penicillin, Methicillin, amoxicillin, and
more antibiotics. There are even reports of strains that are resistant to Vancomycin. If this
development in MRSA continues, it is greatly feared that we will run out of defenses against MRSA.
However, doctors and scientists are strategizing and researching to prevent the development of
MRSA. One strategy that is currently in clinical trial stages is the treatment of simple CA–MRSA
cases with off–patent antimicrobial medications. This will limit the MRSA bacterias exposure to the
more commonly relied upon medications and hopefully reduce the chance of it developing more
resistance. Current research may even change how MRSA is treated in the future. Scientists are
analyzing how the MRSA bacteria works in attempts to develop new and better medications in its
treatment. Scientists have recently discovered Phenol–Soluble Modulin (PSM) Proteins in MRSA
bacteria. It is believed that these proteins play a key role in the strength and severity of MRSA
infections. The PSM proteins destroy white blood cells and most other immune cells. Without these
cells the body cannot protect itself from MRSA. Scientists today hope to create a drug that can
prevent the PSM proteins from functioning. If this can be accomplished, the severity and threat of
MRSA will be greatly

Prevention Of Hospitals For Methicillin Resistant...
Article #5 In a study Herrmann, Petit, Dawson, Biechele, Halfmann, von Müller ... and Gärtner
(2013) conducted a widespread screening in the admission of patients to hospitals for methicillin
resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The purpose of this study is to show that to help control
the spread of MRSA in hospital by having admission prevalence screenings. MRSA is a major
nosocomial infection in hospitals and has become a problem that can be hard to manage in patient
safety. There are certain risk factors that a patient can possess when they become infected with
MRSA or are positive carriers. So, if there can be a prevalence screening for these risk factors upon
admission hospitals would be able to tell if the MRSA was acquired while in the hospital or if the
patient was already infected. In the other case studies discussed they examine steps that can be taken
in the case of MRSA already infecting patients and then treating, isolating, and preventing from
infecting many more. The study administered by Herrmann et al. examines patients upon admission
meaning this could help reduce the spread of MRSA other than finding that it infected patients
already admitted. Since this study was focusing on prevalence screening they needed participates
from all over the region. During this study 24 hospitals participated: 12 hospitals had less than 200
beds, 10 hospitals that had up to 500 beds, one hospital with 600 beds, and one with close to 1300
beds (Herrmann et al., 2013).

Essay Blood Borne Pathogens and Disease Transmission
Pathogens are a type of microorganism that spreads viral and bacterial diseases. These diseases
when present in human blood and body fluids are known as blood borne pathogens, and can spread
from one person to another. (Worcester polytechnic institute) The most serious types of blood borne
diseases are the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), which can cause liver
damage; and HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which is responsible for causing AIDS
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome). The blood borne pathogens can be spread when the blood
or body fluids (semen, vaginal fluid, breast milk, and amniotic fluid) of an infected individual comes
into contact with mucous membranes or an open sore or cut on the skin of another ... Show more
As the immune system becomes weakened it becomes more susceptible to other infections and
diseases as well. There is no current vaccination available to prevent HIV. ("Bloodborne pathogens:
MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia") For a first aid provider becoming infected with a blood borne
pathogen is an ever–present concern. By the very nature of their work emergency medical
technicians (EMTs) are at risk to exposure. EMTs can be exposed to blood or other body fluids by
working on a trauma victim with uncontrollable bleeding or who is disoriented, or exposed to
infected needles used in the process of performing a life saving procedure on a patient. According to
a national survey conducted 2664 paramedics reported the following exposure rates:
Twenty–two percent were exposed to blood at least once during the previous year.
The national injury rate for sharps among paramedics was higher when compared with most hospital
workers.
Among paramedics exposure to blood due to broken skin was extremely high.
However EMTs should not be the only ones concerned with coming in contact with blood borne
pathogens. First responders on a scene might need to work directly with a victim to provide CPR or
other life saving functions until the EMTs arrive. ("Preventing Exposures to Bloodborne Pathogens
among Paramedics.") To prevent the spread of disease there are a number of things a person can do.
The

Staphylococcus Aurosis Research Papers
Staphylococcus aureus is a pathogen of more importance due to rise in resistance to antibiotic
(Lowy, 1998).It is different from the CoNS (e.g. S. epidermidis), and more venomous despite their
phylogenic similarity (Waldvogel, 1990; Projan and Novick, 1997). CoNS when grown on solid
media form translucent white color colonies (Howard and Kloos, 1987). Genome databases to date
the staphylococcus aureus have been completed for 7 strains, MRSA, 8325, MSSA COL, MW2,
N315, and Mu50. S. aureus genome average size is 2.8Mb (Kuroda et al., 2001). S. aureus cell wall
is 20–40 nm thick a hard protective coat, which is generally unstructured in appearance (Shockman
and Barrett, 1983). Under the cell wall is the cytoplasm that is enclosed by the cytoplasmic ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cell wall teichoic acid and cell membrane associated lipoteichoic acid are two types of teichoic
acids; are inserted in the bacterial lipid membrane or covalently bound to the peptidoglycan. These
acids provide a negative charge to the cell surface of staphylococcus and play an important role in
the activities of autolytic enzymes the localization of metal ions especially divalent cations and
acquisition (Wilkinson, 1997). These two components only accounts for about 90% of cell wall
mass, remaining is composed of exoproteins, autolysins and surface proteins. These components are
virulence determinants and are involved in bacterial attachment to surfaces (Karakawa and Vann,
1982; Thakker et al., 1998). Staphylococcus aureus has three virulence determinant production
regulators that regulate the expression of different proteins necessary for growth are agr, sar and sae
(Recsei et al., 1986; Morfeldt et al., 1988; Cheung et al., 1992; Giraudo et al.,

Essay On Mrsa
Introduction and History
MRSA is a type of staph bacteria, and stands for Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Many
antibiotics that usually treat staph infections are not effective in treating MRSA, as MRSA is
resistant to antibiotics. Beta–lactams are the class MRSA is resistant to, and includes: penicillin,
methicillin, and amoxicillin, to name a few. MRSA is a gram–positive bacterium, and on a gram
stain, MRSA looks like a group of grapes. 1880 was when the staph bacterium was discovered.
Later, in the 1940s, the treatment for the Staphylococcus Aureus bacterium was constant, thanks to
the development of antibiotics. Though, overusing and not correctly using the antibiotics is what
helped the bacterium resistant to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Even if none of these risk factors apply to you, still anyone is susceptible to getting infected with
MRSA.
Transmission
The most common source of infection for staph, and MRSA, is the skin. Infection begins at the
source of an open wound in the skin, which can include paper cuts or shaving nicks. Skin to skin
contact is the most common way to transmit this bacteria from one person to another. Other methods
of transmission include but are not limited to: blood, sputum, urine, and stool. One of these
transmission sites are typically tested to confirm infection with a positive culture result.
Symptoms
MRSA shows up on the skin as a bump or infected area. Patients that have MRSA originally think
they have a bug or spider bite. This area can be exhibit redness, tenderness at infected area or bump,
this area could be swollen, or consisting of pus or similar drainage. Another symptom accompanying
the bump or infected area is fever, and/or the area being warm to the touch. If you notice any of
these symptoms, see a healthcare provider to ensure you receive proper treatment. Once the bacteria
are in the body, it begins to multiply in the tissues, then eventually symptoms begin. Though, it has
been found that a patient can carry MRSA and be asymptomatic for an extended amount of time
before showing illness. It is also possible that you can have MRSA without showing symptoms at all
if proper preventative steps are taken to

MRSA Infections
The most popular options for MRSA infections include vancomycin, teicoplanin (see Marcone and
Marinelli, this volume), linezolid (see Zappia et al., this volume), and daptomycin (see Baltz, this
volume). Tigecycline (see Genilloud and Vicente, this volume) is also very active against MRSA,
while telavancin (a new lipoglycopeptide, see Marcone and Marinelli, this volume) and ceftaroline
(a new cephalosporin endowed with high binding affinity to PBP2a, see Leemans et al., this volume)
have been the most recent additions in the repertoire of anti–MRSA drugs.
Moreover, a number of novel anti–MRSA agents of various classes are found at various
developmental stages of the pipeline (e.g., dalbavancin, oritavancin, razupenem, omadacycline, and
nemonoxacin) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
aureus has a remarkable ability to develop antibiotic resistance, leading to four distinct resistance
waves that have occurred in the past sixty years. The advent of PRSA, then MRSA resistance has
resulted in a steady decline in the efficacy of these valuable antibiotics. The MRSA first emerged as
a nosocomial pathogen (HA–MRSA; in the 1960s), then further surfaced as a community based
infection (CA–MRSA; in the 1990s) and has subsequently increased the staphylococcal disease
burden. It is a global public health problem and represents the most commonly identified antibiotic–
resistant pathogen.
The incidence of HA– and CA–MRSA infections as well as the prevalence of different MRSA
clones varies considerably among countries. Some MRSA clonal lineages are more frequently
isolated than others owing to their superior survival and transmissibility. The HA–MRSA is endemic
in many hospitals worldwide. The CA–MRSA has a smaller fitness burden, higher transmissibility
and virulence compared to HA–MRSA and is epidemic in many countries.
MRSA has markedly influenced the empirical therapy for staphylococcal infections. Limited
therapeutic options are available for the management of these infections. Most β–lactam antibiotics
are ineffective against both HA– and

Staphylococcus Aureus ( Mrsa ) Essay
Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium that is responsible for several
infections in humans like pneumonia, bloodstream infection, etc. Methicillin resistance in
Staphylococcus aureus was first identified among hospitalized patients in 1960s. MRSA is any strain
of Staphylococcus aureus developed through the process of natural selection and resistance to beta–
lactam antibiotics like penicillins (methicillin, dicloxacillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, etc.) and the
cephalosporins. It is of huge concern in hospitals, prisons, and nursing homes, where the patients are
at high risk due to open wounds, invasive devices, and weakened immune systems. MRSA
infections that occur in hospitals are known as Hospital Associated MRSA (HA–MRSA). In a
hospital where patients are getting infected with MRSA, which had been detected from their nose
secretions and some from skin infections, it is very important to take immediate preventive and
control measures to fight against MRSA. Various strategies can be applied to prevent and control
MRSA as well as to treat MRSA associates infection in order to completely eradicate MRSA threat
from the hospital. Various measures that can be taken to tackle such situation are: 1. Screening of all
patients to identify all MRSA infected patients and MRSA carriers. 2. Implementing various
prevention strategies. 3. Decolonization therapy for all MRSA carriers. 4. Treatment of Infected
patients. 1. Screening of all patients to identify all

Essay On MRSA
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common skin infection contracted in the community and
healthcare systems. Methicillin– resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was originally resistant to
the antibiotic methicillin which is a form of penicillin. MRSA is now resistant to many other
antibiotics such as; penicillin, vancomycin, and erythromycin (Sakoulas. G., Moellering. R.C.Jr.,
2008). What this means is that the antibiotics have lost their ability to control or kill the bacteria.
MRSA was first seen in healthcare in the 1940's (Herwaldt. L. A., 1999). Since it is commonly
contracted and can live in many environments, we now see MRSA in the community. MRSA can
only be contracted by physical touch with an infected individual. If ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
E, 2010). The difference between staphylococcus aureus and methicillin– resistant staphylococcus
aureus is, that S. aureus is a common skin infection carried on the nose or skin and often treated
with antibiotics. MRSA is a type of skin infection that is resistant to antibiotics, making it more
difficult to treat (Gould. I.M., 2007).
MRSA is known as the most common staph infection among the community and hospital settings.
Clinical Infectious Diseases (CID) states until the late 1960's resistance to methicillin was
uncommon and human infections declined (Keith. S. K., Anderson. D. J., Choi. Y., Link. K., Sexton.
P. D. T., 2008). For a decade the infection only appeared in urban hospitals. However, MRSA started
to become known again in the 1970's and it turned into an on–going journey. MRSA started to
become an epidemic in the 1980's, spreading to Europe, Australia, and the Asian– Pacific region
(Klevens. R.M., Edwards. J.R., Tenover. F. C., McDonald. L.C., Horan. L., Gaynes. R., 2006). With
this incline many teaching hospitals saw an rise of 14% in Australia and 8%– 22% in the United
States (Klevens. R.M., Edwards. J.R., Tenover. F. C., McDonald. L.C., Horan. L., Gaynes. R.,
2006). At this time, there was a clone to the virus known as EMRSA, that came from Australia. This
clone was making its way to the United Kingdom and soon toward Europe, and the United States
saw their MRSA cases multiply. In

Infections Are Common Among Medical Settings
MRSA is considered to be nosocomial infections which are infections that occur within 48 hours of
being admitted to a hospital but recently the newest term for these conditions are healthcare
associated infections (HAISs)(book). The majority of these infections are common among medical
settings because they provide an ideal environment for development and transmission. These
infections can be transmitted by contaminated hands of healthcare providers, contaminated
instruments, and urinary catheters. All these microbes allow easy entrance into the body and
invasive surgeries can help with the spread of diseases because they are an open access point to the
body. Methicillin–resistant staphylococcus aureus is one of the most concerning healthcare
associated infections because it is resistant to more than one antibiotic. It is associated with surgical
wound, urinary tract, and blood stream infection and has a possibility of causing respiratory
infections (book). Over the last 20 years MRSA has spread into the community and has been
associated with the recent high antibiotic use, sharing contaminated person items, living in crowded
settings, and poor hygiene. This form is different in the fact that it can be treated with alternate
antibiotics.
Medical professionals that have to deal with diseases such as MRSA should use contact precautions
to prevent of spreading the disease to other patients or employees. Radiographers that are dealing
with contact diseases should always wear

MRSA Research

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to MRSA Research

Similar to MRSA Research (7)

More from Susan Tullis

More from Susan Tullis (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

MRSA Research