Educating the Tribal Population in the Era of Globalisation

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Associatiom ef [mdian Um[ve*'sities
Vol. 55 No. 35 o ,August 28-september 03,2017
M Sen GuPta
Effective Skili Learning for Enhancinc
Employabili$
Subir Maitra
EducatinE the Tribal Population in the Ei'a of
Globalisation: Suppiv and Demand Driver:
Approaches
cws
Reena Agarwal
Reflections on Twr:-Years E Ed Curriculum
Asha Mane
Use of Conceptual i'lodel in Research Process
M Venkaiah Naidu
Education for Achieving Greater Goals of Life
- Convocation Address
her Edtr
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2. Educating the Tribal Population in the Era of Globalisation:
t
Supply and Demand Driven Approaches
Sublr Maitra*
Scheduled Tribes (ST) refers to such tribes or
tribal communities or parts of or groups within such
tribes or tribal communities, who are scheduled in
accordance withArticle 342 of the Constitution as are
deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for
the purposes of this Constitution. The essential
characteristics for a community to be identified as
Scheduled Tribes are : (i) indications of primitive traits;
(ii) distinctive culture; (iii) shyness of contact r;rrith the
community at large; (iv) geographical isolatiton; and
(v) backwardness.
In spite of corncerted effort by the Government,
both at the Centre and the States, the tribal p,opulation
in India continues to remain backward in term,s of many
devb,lopment parameters, including e,ilucation.
Although the literacy rate among the tribal population
has inereased considerably since independence and the
GER for scheduled tribe children at the elementary level
(Qlass I-VUD compares favourably with the All India
level, the tribal population is still lagging behind in
terms of educational attainment. The dropout rates
among the tribal students are alarmingly high 48.2 per
cent in Classes I to VIII; and62.4 per cent in Classes I
to X in 2013-14 (provisional estimates). Only 11.3 per
cent ofthe scheduled tribe population in the age group
of 1B-23 reaches the graduation or higher level.
The design of social policies which encourages
human capital accumulation among the backward
section of the society is a basic concern for
policymakers and economists all over the world.
Roughly speaking, these policies can be classified as
either 'supply-side' interventions, which attempt to
improve the educational infrastructure or quality of
education, or'demand-side' interventions, which
attempt to provide incentives for poor parents to keep
their children in school longer and engage in other
activities that would bolster human capital
accumulation. Alarge number of developing countries,
including Mexico, Brazil, Indonesia, Turkey,
Bangladesh, Colombia, Honduras, Jamaica, Bolivia,
*Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Heramba
Chandra College (University of Calcutta), 23/49, Gariahat
Road, Opp Ramakrishna Mission, Kolkata-700029 (West
B engal) sub innaitra@gmail. c om
Nicaragua and Peru, have adopted demand-side
interventions, where cash transfers to parents are
conditional on the school attendance of their children
(C6sar and Parker, 2008).
In India, the govemment has undertaken several
targeted prograflrmes to educa& fibal population from
the primary up to the post-graduation level. Some of
these programmes are supply-side measures, while rest
are demand-side interventions. By building schools and
hostels in the tribal areas, extending Book Bank
facilities to the tribal students, the government has Eied
to encourage.the tribal population to get educated.
These are supply-side mea$rres. The government has
also offered stipends and scholarships to make ST
families offset schooling-related cosB for fteir children.
The demand-side measures like, stipends and
scholarships have been around for a long time.But the
high dropout rate among the tribal students is a
testimony to the fact that these interventions could not
bring desired success. Such top-down education drive
may have led to waste ofresources @anerjee and Duflo,
20t1). Unless tribal population starts demanding
education on their own, we cannot achieve complete
success. But, individuals from disadvantaged
backgrounds have less information about the value of
education, and less know-how to make the best use of
'the system' (Barr,2012). They have lower incomes,
and are, therefore, less able to afford the earnings
forgone by continuing education. The existence of
informational and behavioural problems and
incomplete market makes it furfter complicated. For
all these reasons, children from low-income tribal
families tend to avail themselves of a smaller quanttty
of education. A Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) in
the form of Education Maintenance Allowances may
be introduced to encourage poor tribal families to
ensurethattheirwards stay at school. The scheme may
include aweekly cash allowance plus periodic bonuses,
provided that recipients kept to the terms of a learning
agreement with their school or college (Barr, 2012).
Rut, supply and demand strategies have no reason to
be mutually exclusive. Supply by itself is necessary,
but demand is important, too @anerjee and Duflo,
201 1).
UNMERSITY NEIUTS, 5 5 (3 5) AUGUST 28-SEPTEMBER 03, 2OI7

3. Eristing Status of Education of the Scheduled
Tribes
The Scheduled Tribes population of the country
as per the 2011 census, is 10.43 crore, constituting 8.6
per cent of the total population. The population of
Scheduled Tribes had grown at the rate of 23.66 per
cent during the period 2001-2011. More than half the
Scheduled Tribes population is concentrated in the
States of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha,
Raj asthan, Guj arat, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.
Scheduled Tribes communities live in about 15
per cent of the country's areas, in various ecological
and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains and
forests to hills and inaccessible areas. Tribal groups
are at different stages of social, economic and
educational development. While some tribal
communities have adopted a mainstream way of life,
at the other end of the spectrum, there are certain
Scheduled Tribes, 75 in number known as Particularly
Vulnerable Tribal Groups (earlier termed as Primitive
Tribal Groups) (PVTGs), who are characterised by (a)
a pre-agriculture level oftechnology; (b) a stagnant or
declining population; (c) extremely low literacy; and
(d) a subsistence level of economy.
While the tribal population in some states is low
when calculated as the percentage of the total tribal
population of India but it constitutes the majority within
the state or UT itself (e.g. in Lakshadweep, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Dadra
& Nagar Haveli). A very sizable segment of tribal
population, as stated earlier, resides in the states of
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat. Jharkhand. Orissa. Rajasthan,
Maharashtra and Madh,v-a Pradesh.
There are over 700 Scheduled Tribes notitied
underArticle342 of the Constitution of lndia. spread
over different States and Union Territories of the
: - -:::-. l'1.:--. ::::'=. i:- :::!3:ti tn lilOfe than One State.
Tne ."::-.::-::--li: - - : -::::::..:--:::. .l.te,l aS SChedUled
Tnbes are rn the !i&ie ,.t r-l;-.:" - : rl
The economic condition of the STs rs quite
alarming. Only 0.54 per cent of ST households *'ork
in government or in public sector. 0.16 per cent of ST
households has salaried job in the private sector. Only
10.5 per cent of ST households have their own house.
The percentage of ST households with any member
earning more than Rs. 10,000 per month is 0.49 per
cent. Only 0.37 per cent ST households pay income
tax.r Such economic condition of the schedule tribes
has primarily been due to poor educational attainments.
Gross Enrolment Ratio(GER) for Scheduled Tribe
students at Primary Upper Primary and Elementary
levels are given in Table l. In2014-15, there has been
marginal decline in GER at Primary level from I 13.2
in 2013-14(P) to 109.4 in 2014-15(P).
However, at Secondary Senior Secondary and
Higher Education levels the GER has increased over
the years as given in Table 2.The GER for ST students
are 72.2 per cent and 38.8 per cent, respectively at the
Secondary and Senior Secondary levels as per 2014-
15 AISHE Reports, while that at Higher Secondary
level is abysmally low at 13.3 per cent.
Although, the Drop-Out Rates in School
Education for Scheduled Tribe Students have
progressively declined for different classes during
20ll-12 to 2014-15 (Table 3), the situation is still
alarming. Out of every 100 ST students admitted in
Class I, nearly 48 drops out between Class I and VIII
and nearly 62 drops out between Class I and X. as per
201-3-i4 pror.isional estimates. Drop-olrt rates are
slightly higher among the boys compared to those
among sirls across all categories.
Table 1: Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Scheduled Tribe Students
Level / Year Primary (I-V)
6-10 Years
Upper Primary (VI-V[)
11-I3 Years
Elementary (I-VUD
6-13 Years
Boys Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
20r1-12
2012-13(P)
20 1 3- 14(P)
2014- 1s(P)
117.8 115.6
1r5.7 113.s
1r4.4 111.9
110.6 108.2
t16.7
1]4.6
113.2
109.4
76.8
86.2
90.5
93.0
'74.1
86.5
92.2
9s.2
7 5.s
86.4
91 .3
94.1
103.0 100.6 101.8
105.1 103.9 1A4.5
105.9 105.0 105.s
104.4 103.7 104.0
P: Prol'isional
Source: (a). Figures for 2011-12 &.2012-13 taken from the publication: Statistics of School Educatior. MHRD (b). Figures for 2013-14 &
20t4-15 taken from Unrfied- District Information System for Education (U-DISE). NUEPA
UNIVERSITY NEVS, 55(35) ,UGUST 28-SEPTEMBER 03,2017

4. Reasons for high drop-outs among tribal students
The High Drop-outs among Tribal Students can
be explained in terms of various arguments. We can
classiSz these arguments into two categories: economic
and non-economic. The economic arguments are based
on the traditional theory of human capital investment.
The theory propounds that investment in education by
an individual is determined by equating the marginal
cost in terms of foregone eamings from foregone leisure
to the marginal benefit of spending additional time in
particular, higher earnings as an adult. Subsidies in the
form of lower fees or scholarships provided to the
students affect the marginal schooling in the same way
as would a decrease in the child wage rate: They reduce
the sliadow wage (or relative value) of children's time
in aetivities than school. The benefit to schooling in
terms of earnings depends on how time the individual
spends working as an adult. However, as they
accumulate schooling, they receive higher wage offers.
Assuming diminishing marginal returns to schooling,
at some point, the marginal benefit of schooling (higher
future wages) will no ionger exceed rhe n':r:l- .-.-st
(foregone wages and leisure iirc;,. Trese
considerations lead us to expect that over the s-f,Jrl it-tn.
the program is likely to decrease working (a-iurrung
the substitution effect continues to dominate the ulcLlme
effect), but over the longer run, the program mi€&t
increase working.2This argument could explain u'h1.
the drop-out rates increase as the ST students move up
in years of schooling.
The non-economic reasons which are directly or
indirectly responsible for higher drop-out rates among
the ST students are indifferent attitude of tribal parents
to their warrls' education, tribal concept of learning
being different from present schooling system,
linguistic problems, problem associated with leaming
English, problems in learning to read- exfteme level of
poverty, deprivation and vulnerabiliti,. high levels of
dervelopmental, social and economic exclusion. lorv
level of access to entitlement, extremelv ion' level of
political, social and economic empox'errnent. poor
human development with low level of literacv and
Table 2: Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Schedufied Tribe Students
Level / Year Secondary (IX-X)
14-15 Years
SeniorSecondary (X[-XI!
16-17 Years
Higher Education
18-23 Years
Boys Girls TotaI Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
20tt-12
20r2-13(P)
:fi 1 r- i4{P)
j* i,r , 1.5{P)
s6"7
62.6
70.3
71.8
50.6
61.2
70.1
72.6
s3.8
61.9
70.2
72.2
35.4
36.7
39.8
:29.0
'29.0
34.r
37.8
32.3
30.7
35.4
38.8
12.4
t2.4
t2.5
14.6
9.7
9.8
10.2.
t2.0
11.0
1 1.1
11.3
I 3.3
i'Frovisioral
ll*i*'ce: Figures taken from All India survey on Higher Education (AISHE) Reports, MFIRD
Table 3: Drop-Out Rates in School Education for Scheduled Tribe Students
Le vd / "ri;es Classes (I-V)
6-13 Years
Classes (I-VUD
6-13 Years
Classes (I-X)
6-13 Years
Eoys Girls lfctal Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
20t l-lt
1"or r-rU(P)
'10 t3- r4 (0)
36.1
JJ.J
31.9
34.4
31.2
30.7
3i5.3
J -/-.J
J-I.J
s7.3
50.6
49.8
57.1
47.5
46.4
57.2
4e.2
48..2
64.4
63.2
63.2
67.6
62.2
61.4
65.9
62.7
62.4
Pl Prorisional
Soqrca:E/rrcation at a Giance, Depafiment cf School Education, MHR[)
UNIVERSITY NEWS, 5505) AUGTTS'I 2B.SEPTEMBER 03, 2017

5. access to lhealth care, weak delivery system of public
services, femt increasing tendency to misguide and use
tribal people in criminal activities like illicit distillation,
cultivation rcf narcotic plants, stealing of forest wealth
etc.3
Existing Pr"ogrammes to Promote Educational
Attainment of ST Students
The existing targetedprogrammes to educate tribal
population In India from the primary up to the post-
graduation level can be classified into supply-side and
demand-side measures. The supply-side measures
include schemes for building schools and hostels in
the tribal areas, extending Book Bank facilities to the
tribal students, while the demand-side interventions all
schemes offering stipends and scholarships to make
ST families offset schooling-related costs for their
children. The demand-side measures like, stipends and
scholarships are being offered since long time back. A
brief description of these schemes is given below.
Supply-side Schemes
Scheme for Construction of Hostels for ST Girls
and Boys aims at promoting literacy among poor and
remotely located tribal students by providing hostel
accommodation. The scheme covers the entire ST
population in the country and is not area-specific.
In order to provide education of Scheduled Tribe
students including PVTGs from Class I-Class XII with
residential facilities in an environment conducive to
learning, the Scheme for the Establishment ofAshram
Schools in Tribal Sub-Plan Areas has been launched.
The scheme covers a1l the Tribal Sub-plan are as of the
country spread over 22 States and 2 Union Territories.
Many ST students selected in professional courses
find it difficult to continue their education for want of
books on their subjects, as these are often expensive.
In order to reduce the dropout rate ofST students from
professional institutes / universities, funds are provided
for purchase of books under the Book Bank scheme.
The scheme is opento all ST students pursuing medical,
engineering, agriculture, veterinary polytechnic, law,
chartered accountancy, business management, bio-
science subjects, who are receiving Post-Matric
Scholarships
With a view to upgrading the merit of Scheduled
Tribe including PVTG students in classes IX to XII by
providing them with facilities for all rorind development
through education in residential schools, a scheme
named Upgradation of Merit has been functioniag as a
sub-scheme of the PMS. Under this scheme the State
Government / UTAdministration selects certain schools
in different Districts / towns with hostel facilities which
show excellence inperformance of students from class
IX to XII. Coaching starts from class IX in the identified
schools and continues till the awardees complete class
XII.
Vocational Training in Tribal Areas (VTC) aims
at upgrading the skills of the tribal youth in various
traditional / modem vocations depending upon their
educational qualification, present economic trends and
the market potential, which would enable them to gain
suitable employment or enable them to become self
employed. The scheme is exclusively forbenefit ofthe
Scheduled Tribes as well as PVTGs.
Demand-side Schemes
The Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme (PMS) aims
atproviding financial assistance to the Scheduled Tribe
students studying at post-matriculation or post-
secondary levels to enable them to complete their
education. The scheme is open to all ST students whose
parents' annual income is Rs.2.50 lakh or less w.e.f.
1.4.2013. Students are provided different rates of
scholarships depending on the course.
National Overseas Scholarship Scheme for Higher
Studies Abroad provides financial assistance to students
selected for pursuing higher studies abroad for Post-
Graduation, Ph.D and Post-Doctoral research
programmes. Scheduled Tribe candidates and
3candidates belonging to PVTGs (Particularly
Vulnerable Tribal Groups) can be awarded the
scholarship annually for pursuing Post Graduate,
Doctoral and Post-Doctoral level courses abroad.
Raj iv Gandhi National Fellowship (RGNF), a sub-
scheme under the National Fellowship and Scholarship
for HigherEducation of ST Students has the objective
to provide fellowships in the form of financial
assistance to students belonging to the Scheduled Tribes
to pursue higher studies such as M.Phil and Ph.D. This
scheme covers all the Universities /Institutions
recognized by the University Grants Commission
(UGC) under section 2(f) of the UGCAct.
Scheme of Top Class Education for ST Students
is another sub-scheme under the National Fellowship
and Scholarship for Higher Education of ST Students
has been initiated in 2007-08 to encourage meritorious
ST students for pursuing studies at degree and post
1lUNIVERSITY NEP'S, 55(35) AUGUST 2S-SEPTEMBER 03, 2017

6. clegree levei in any of the selected list of Instirutes, in
whiclr the scholarship scheme *'ould be operative.
There are 158 approved Institutes in borh the
Governmer"tt and private seciors ccrvering the field of
flancgelnent, medicine, engiueering, law and
commereial courses. ST students will be arvarded
scholarship covering fuil tuition fee and other non-
refuneiable dLres, living expenses ancl expenses fcr
cornpLiter. books and stalionerv.
Pr e-illatric Sc h o I ar s h ip fo r lt ee dy S c le e dul e d Trih e
Students Srudying in Classes IX & X
The scherne has the objectives to support parents
cf ST students for education of iheir ""vards studying in
Classes IX and X so that the incidence of ciropout,
especially in transition fi:orn the elementary io
secondary and during secondary stage ofeducation, is
minimized, and to improve participation cf ST students
in Classes IX and X of Pre-Matric stage, so that they
perform well and have a bet'ier cliance of progressing
to Post-Matric stages of education.
Conditional Cash Transfer iCCT) Frogramme
and its Applicability in tlre Indian Context
Cash transfers reler to a ciass of instruments used
to endorv beneficiaries with purchasing power to
acquire specific goods or services rather tiian the goods
or services themseives. Such cash tratrsfers can be
uncorditional or conditionai. An unconditicnal cash
transfer imposes no restriction or beneficiaries with
regard to its use; there are nc strirrgs attached and
beneflciaries are fi"ee to ,Jecide hor'r, they rvish to spenri
it. Thc-se transitrs can be universai or restricted (or
targei.ed) tc a specific sub-poprtlation, f'ar example, the
poor, clderly, and nursitg motht:rs. Ccnditional Cash
Traasfer (CCT) schemes essentially transfer cash,
generally ic target households, coatingent on specific
behavioural responses on the part of the lrousehoid.
l'hese conditions can stipulaie that houseiroids make
pre-specified investments in the human capital of their
cirildren, be employed in public works (iike
FfCNREGA in India), rise specific he,:trthcare facilities
ias in case of JSY in India), and so on.rN4ore
speciiicali-v, tirese cash transf'ers are condiiioneC r;n
rninimum levels of use of health and educaiion serr ices,
gen*rally by ior for the benefit oll the children in the
household" lypical reqr-rirements include enroiment and
actual attenciance at schools (for example, nriniinum
attend;rnce rates cf 85 per cent ;rre lequired in Brazii's
tso1sa Faniilia and a simiiar restriction applies in
IVlexico's Oportunidades). Programs that have a health
component also may require that children make regular
visits to a health center and receive in-rmunizations, and
that pregnant women and lactating mothers keep a
predetermined numbcr of appointments at local clinics
or attend informational sessions (platicas) on hygiene
and nutrition.5
Kanyashree Prakalpa, introduced by the
Government of West Bengal in 2012 is a unique
Conditiorral Cash Transfer scheme which targets all
adolescent girls, including ST girls, aged 13-19 years,
r,vitlr a family income less than or equal to Rs. 1 ,20,0001
- per annum and offers a two-tier scholarship of an
annual Rs. 750 for continuing education (K1) and a
one-tirne payment o1'Rs 25,000 cn completion of 18,
conditional upon the giri rerrraining unmarried and
continuing education till that age (K2). The aim of thrs
sclieme is two-fold - to promote secondary education
among fernales and to stop marriage of girls befbre the
oiticial age of, t8. Till Jure,20li,36,46,AC9 anrlual
scholarships (Kl) atd 9,92,2J3 one-time pa--vment (Kl )
have been sanctioned by the Government of Iest
Bengal under this scherne.
Theoretically, the situati.ons chaiacterised b1'
imperfect informaiion. myopia and erternaiities rnay
demand conditioning a cash transfer. Eccnomie agents
do not always behave exactly as oue',r'ould epect fu1ly
infonned, rational agents to behave. Private intbrmation
about the nature of certain investments. or about their
expected returns, may be impertect and persistent. The
people often sufler fiom seli'-control problerns and
excessive procrastination. in the sense that their day-
to-day behaviour is inconsistent u'ith their own long-
term attitude torr,ard the fut,.tre. Such imperfect
infbrmation and myopia mev cause a family's privately
chosen lcve1 of investment in human capital to be too
lorn, compared ri'ith its ori'n 'true'private optimai.
Another .justifications for making cash transfers
conditronal is that. even if the levels of human capital
investnient b1' the poor were privately optimal, they
might not be socially optimal because of the presence
ol market faiiures, particuiarly, extemal ities. 6
In view of above, a CCT schetle ma.v be desrgned
for promoting education among the tribals rn India. A
CCT scheme in the fotm of Education iaintenance
Ailorvances rlray be intrc'duced io enccurage poor tribal
families tcr ensure that their r','ards stav at school. The
-scheme may include a rr.eekiv cash allowance plus
periodic bonuses, pror-icied t1-rat recipients kept to the
12" LINIVERSITY NEX/S, i ) (3 5 I AUG UST 28-SEPTEIviBER a3, 2017

7. terms of a learning agreement with their school or
college (Barr, 2012). The periodic bonuses may be
increased gradually as the tribal student reaches higher
classes with regular attendance and reasonable learning
achievement. This allowance may be paid to the mother
ofthe student so that she can
"rrr."
nutrition fbr her
child as well as for other family members. Such a
scheme would really help reduce drop_out rates in
schools among the tribal students.
Conclusion
The supply and demand_driven approaches,
however, have no reason to be mutually exclusive.
Supply by itself is necessary but demand is important,
too (Banerjee and Duflo, 2}ll). Unless we have
adequate number of schools in the tribal areas and also
good hostel facilities, we cannot cater to the needs of
all ST children. Scholarships may entice ST students
to schools, but to keep them in schools may require
conditional cash transfer schemes like Educational
Maintenance Allowances (EMA), as proposed in the
last section. The preliminary ,"pori about the
Kanyashree Pakalpa in West Aengai has been quite
encouraging. This has not only increased enrolment of
girl students in schools but also significantly reduced
drop-out rates among girl students.TThe schemes like
EMA will not only help reduce drop_out rates and
promote education but also can ensure nukition for the
entire family belonging to schedule tribes.
|ltg-s, (www wbkanyashree. gov. inlreadwrite/publications/
000i 13.pdf (accessed on 12.01.2017)
References
1. Banerjee, Abhijit Vinayak and Esther, Dufio (2lll), poor
Economics, Random House India.
2. Barr, Nicholas (2012), Economics of the Wblfare State,
OIJP, U.K.
3. Behrman. Jere R.. parker, Susan W. and Tocid, petra E.
(2011), Do Ccnditional Cash Transfers for Schooling
Generate Lasting Benefits? A Five_year Follow up oi
PR.OGRESA/ Oportunidades, The Journal of Human
Resources,Yol. 46, No. 1 (Winter) , pp. 93-122.
4. Ariel, Fiszbein and Schady, Norbert eAOr, Conditional
Cash Transfen, World Bank.
5. Haseena, V.A and Mohammed, Ajims p. (20i4), Scope
of education and dropout among tribal students in Kerala
-A study oi Scheduled tribes in Attap pady, Internafional
Journal of Scientific and Research FiOtir'otfonr,Volume
4, Issue 1, January.
6. C6sar, Martinelli and parker, Susan W. (200g), Do School
Subsidies Promote Human Capital trrrr.rt-"rri among the
Poor? The Scandinavian Journal ofEconomics, Vol. 110,
No. 2 (Jun.), pp.261-276
7. Sudha, Narayanan (201 1),ACase forRefrarning the Cash
Transfer Debate in India, Ecanomic and polttiil Weekly,
YoL46, No. 2l (May 21_27),pp. 41_48. tr
Notes
lSocio Economic and Caste Census 2011 (provisional), Ministry
of Rural Developmenl.
2Behrman
Jere R., Susan W. parker and petra E. Todd ( 201 1)
3Haseena
V.A and Ajims p. Mohammed (2014)
'Narayanan Sudha (201 t)
sFiszbein
Ariel and Norbert Schady (2009)
oOp. cit.
TRapid
Assessment Kanyashree prakalpa, April_June 2015.
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