In this slide contains Determination of Acid value, Saponification value and Ester value.
Presented by: P.NARESH (Department of pharmaceutical analysis).RIPER, anantapur
In this slide contains Study of Quality of Raw Materials and General methods of analysis of Raw materials used in cosmetic manufacture as per BSI
Presented by: P.PAVAN KALYAN (Department of pharmaceutical analysis).RIPER, anantapur
In this slide contains Determination of Acid value, Saponification value and Ester value.
Presented by: P.NARESH (Department of pharmaceutical analysis).RIPER, anantapur
In this slide contains Study of Quality of Raw Materials and General methods of analysis of Raw materials used in cosmetic manufacture as per BSI
Presented by: P.PAVAN KALYAN (Department of pharmaceutical analysis).RIPER, anantapur
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceinventy
esearch Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Increasing Yield in the Manufacturing of MPDSAijsrd.com
Meta phenylenediamine 4 sulphonic acid (MPDSA) is one of the important products in the dyestuff sector. The present conventional manufacturing process for MPDSA being carried out at the industry is less efficient and gives an overall yield of about 60 %. But the use of alternative raw materials for the manufacture of MPDSA can give yield as high as upto 80%. In addition, this process also eliminates the use of metal catalysts which cause downstream problems. This method involves the use Metaphenylene Diamine as the raw material instead of 2, 4, dinitrochlorobenzene for the manufacture of MPDSA. A lab scale experiment has been carried out and the overall yield has been found to be higher than that obtained from the conventional process. This paper describes this new manufacturing process and its possible economic benefits. Overall yield is calculated and compared with the conventional process.
The document is a project report for manufacturing MEA TRIAZINE from paraformaldehyde and monoethanol amine. MEA TRIAZINE is used as H2S scavanger in crude oilfields.
Physicochemical And Organoleptic Properties Of Some Selected Foods Fried With...iosrjce
This study was undertaken to determine the physicochemical properties and sensory attribute of oil
extracted from melon seeds, (Egusi) citrullus lanatus,when used in frying foods. Standard analytical procedures
were used to evaluate the oil extracted from the seeds for moisture content, specific gravity, saponification
value, refractive index, peroxide value, acid number, iodine value and sensory assessment of the fresh oil was
done using three different foods. The physicochemical properties repeated after storage for two weeks. The
colour, moisture content, specific gravity, acid values, iodine value, peroxide value and saponification value
were yellow, 2.0%, 1.059kg/dm3
, 0.97mgKOH/g, 108g/100g, 7.0mmol O2/kg and 178.11mgKOH/g for fresh
melon seed oil and yellow, 1.2%, 1.0598 kg/dm3
, 0.67mgKOH/g, 110 g/100g, 7.90mmol O2/kg and
178.10mgKOH/g for stored melon seed oil respectively. The organoleptic scoring of foods fried with melon seed
oil compared to foods fried with groundnut oil shows thatplantain fried with melon seed oil had better taste,
aroma and overall acceptance scoring than plantain fried with groundnut oil while yam and egg fried with
groundnut oil had better taste, colour, aroma and overall acceptance scoring compared to those fried with
melon seed oil. This study shows that melon seed oil can be used as cooking oil.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceinventy
esearch Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Increasing Yield in the Manufacturing of MPDSAijsrd.com
Meta phenylenediamine 4 sulphonic acid (MPDSA) is one of the important products in the dyestuff sector. The present conventional manufacturing process for MPDSA being carried out at the industry is less efficient and gives an overall yield of about 60 %. But the use of alternative raw materials for the manufacture of MPDSA can give yield as high as upto 80%. In addition, this process also eliminates the use of metal catalysts which cause downstream problems. This method involves the use Metaphenylene Diamine as the raw material instead of 2, 4, dinitrochlorobenzene for the manufacture of MPDSA. A lab scale experiment has been carried out and the overall yield has been found to be higher than that obtained from the conventional process. This paper describes this new manufacturing process and its possible economic benefits. Overall yield is calculated and compared with the conventional process.
The document is a project report for manufacturing MEA TRIAZINE from paraformaldehyde and monoethanol amine. MEA TRIAZINE is used as H2S scavanger in crude oilfields.
Physicochemical And Organoleptic Properties Of Some Selected Foods Fried With...iosrjce
This study was undertaken to determine the physicochemical properties and sensory attribute of oil
extracted from melon seeds, (Egusi) citrullus lanatus,when used in frying foods. Standard analytical procedures
were used to evaluate the oil extracted from the seeds for moisture content, specific gravity, saponification
value, refractive index, peroxide value, acid number, iodine value and sensory assessment of the fresh oil was
done using three different foods. The physicochemical properties repeated after storage for two weeks. The
colour, moisture content, specific gravity, acid values, iodine value, peroxide value and saponification value
were yellow, 2.0%, 1.059kg/dm3
, 0.97mgKOH/g, 108g/100g, 7.0mmol O2/kg and 178.11mgKOH/g for fresh
melon seed oil and yellow, 1.2%, 1.0598 kg/dm3
, 0.67mgKOH/g, 110 g/100g, 7.90mmol O2/kg and
178.10mgKOH/g for stored melon seed oil respectively. The organoleptic scoring of foods fried with melon seed
oil compared to foods fried with groundnut oil shows thatplantain fried with melon seed oil had better taste,
aroma and overall acceptance scoring than plantain fried with groundnut oil while yam and egg fried with
groundnut oil had better taste, colour, aroma and overall acceptance scoring compared to those fried with
melon seed oil. This study shows that melon seed oil can be used as cooking oil.
Chemical Properties of Local Black Soap Produced from Cocoa Pod Ash and Palm ...ijtsrd
This study was carried out to assess the chemical properties of local black soap produced from cocoa pod ashes and palm oil wastes in Ondo State, Nigeria. The pods were collected from a farm, dried and completely burnt to get the ashes alkali base while the palm oil waste was collected from a local producer in Owo. The traditional method was used to produce the lack soap and thereafter, the values for total fatty matter TFM , total free alkali TFA , free carbonate alkali FCaA , free caustic alkali FCA , pH, lather volume and wash active substance were determined. The result indicate that the soap had values of 67.2 w w , 7.61 w w , 2.27 w w , 4.53 w w , 10.0 and 280ml respectively for TFM, TFA, FCaA, FCA, lather volume and pH while the wash active substance was found to be 31.05 . These results revealed this soap has similar quality to most locally produced soaps. However, the gross inadequacies in the chemical composition of black soap can be improved upon which can be a potential source of job creation and wealth for teeming Nigerian youths. Ajongbolo, K. "Chemical Properties of Local Black Soap Produced from Cocoa Pod Ash and Palm Oil Waste" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33487.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/chemistry/other/33487/chemical-properties-of-local-black-soap-produced-from-cocoa-pod-ash-and-palm-oil-waste/ajongbolo-k
Extraction of Essential Oil from Neem Seed by Using Soxhlet Extraction MethodsIJAEMSJORNAL
Extraction of essential neem oil from neem seed was carried by soxhelt extraction method using different organic solvents and parameters. Physico-chemical property of the extracted oil was also determined by using classical wet chemical method. Result revealed that, soxhlet extraction using hexane has 40.35%; using ethanol-hexane mixture of 60:40% volume proportion has 43.71%, using ethanol 42.65% and using methanol 42.89%. For all solvent type particle size has 355μm, extraction time 1hr up to 3hrs and applied constant and varies temperatures .At smaller extraction time, hexane produced oil yield greater than from ethanol and methanol. Actually, ethanol not produced oil at one hour extraction time. Thus, by effective determination of factors like particle sizes, solvent type, temperature, and time it is possible to investigate the result on the quality and quantity of neem oil. Surprisingly, mixtures of Ethanol and Hexane gave admirable results. Predominantly, ethanol-hexane mixtures of 60:40, and 40:60% (volume proportions) gave better oil yields of 44%, and 41.2% respectively than that of hexane (40.35%) at 3 hours of process time.
The seed from the fruit of the Beilschmiedia mannii (Lauraceae) tree provides edible oil. In order to contribute to the valorization of this seed, which is a traditional Vegetable in Côte d’Ivoire; study of its food potential has been carried out, Particular the determination of some physico-chemical characteristics of its oil. The results obtained are as follows: the yield (8.75%); the refractive index (1.41); the acid index (2.62); the Iodine index (83.8); Saponification index (263.14); the peroxide index (8.97).
Determination of the Optimal Process Conditions for the Acid Activation of Ng...ijceronline
In this work, the optimal adsorption parameters for the adsorption of Carotenoid in the bleaching of palm oil was investigated. Ngwo clay, a local adsorbent obtained from Ngwo town in the South-Eastern province of Nigeria, was used in the study. The palm oil used was also obtained from a local market in Enugu in the same region. The purpose of the work was to develop a model to optimize the efficiency of a local adsorbent that will be cheap and environmentally friendly, for the removal of pigments during refining of vegetable oils. The clay was first, acid activated and characterized, and used in the investigation. Central Composite Design (CCD) package was used to optimize the effects of process parameters of Temperature, Time and Clay Dosage on the bleaching efficiency of Palm Oil. A linear model was predicted and optimized based on BBD. This gave bleaching time of 40min., Temperature of 99.83oC, and Clay dosage of 4%, at a predicted bleaching efficiency of 83%. The optimum conditions were validated to obtain an experimental value of 82.5% with 1.7% error condition.
Depleting nature of nonrenewable energy sources and continuous environmental tribulations make the mankind to think differently regarding alternative renewable energy sources. In this regard, present research investigation contributes biodiesel from canola oil deodorizer distillate (CODD) using Lipase AY Amano 30 (Candida rugosa) and Novozyme 40013 (Candida antarctica) in the presence of methanol. Initially the neutral glycerides present in CODD were hydrolysed using lipase Amano AY 30 in the presence of water. The hydrolysed CODD was then esterified with methanol using non-specific immobilized enzyme NS 40013 for the production of biodiesel. The characteristics of final product were compared with diesel fuel and it showed good results. This bioprocess technology using biohydrolysis and bioesterification is a novel technology for biodiesel production from cheap raw materials like CODD.
Effects of Extraction Methods and Transesterification Temperature on the Qual...IJRTEMJOURNAL
Jatropha curcas oil has been considered a promising alternative fuel for compressing ignition
engines. However, its qualities and utilizations have been affected by so many factors such as extraction
methods, temperatures, reactants, etc. As a result, this work was aimed at studying the effects of extraction
methods and transesterification temperature on the qualities of biodiesel from jatropha oil seeds. Three methods
of extraction (milling hydraulic, and defatting; milling, toasting, and defatting: and sand roasting, dehulling,
milling and defatting) were employed to produce the three different samples A, B, and C respectively. The yields
of the oils obtained were measured. Oil qualities of the oil like: specific gravity, viscosity, free fatty acid,
saponification value, peroxide value, pH and iodine value content of the oil were determined. The extracted oils
were subjected to transesterification process at a various temperature by treatment with ethanol using
potassium hydroxide as catalyst. Average yield of biodiesel was 70.62 %, 74.33% and 79.41% of raw oil from
sample A, B and C respectively. The specific gravity, viscosity, free fatty acid, saponification value, peroxide
value, pH and iodine value content of the oil of sample were A (0.904, 3.240mm2/s, 0.431% ,64.80mg/kg,
2.00mg/kg, 7.38 and 140.61, respectively); sample B (0.903, 3.130mm2/s, 0.423%, 58.91mg/kg, 11.00mg/kg,
7.02 and 55.33, respectively); sample C (0.908, 3.324mm2/s, 0.368%, 52.73mg/kg, 2.00mg/kg, 8.50 and 143.65
respectively). The result revealed that different extraction methods and transesterification temperature have
actually affected the quantity and quality of biodiesel produced from Jatropha oil seeds. Processing of the oil
seeds by roasting dehulling, milling and defatting and transesterification at 700C gave the highest oil yield and
the most acceptable chemical properties.
Pesticides & Chemicals Hurt your Child’s Health & Comprehensionv2zq
INCLUDES LINKS TO:
Over 120 books and web sites on Education, Children's Health and Academic Success, Organic Food Recipes, Organic Non-Sugar Sweeteners, School Lunches ~ Over 300 books on Organic Gardening and Heirloom Gardening ~ Over 200 books on Sustainable Technology and Alternative Housing ~ Over 30 books on Renewable Energy ~ Many Free PDF files on Rain Gardens, Roof Gardens, Aeroponic Gardening, Rainwater Harvesting, Waterwise Gardening, Green Eco Churches, Vegetable Oil Cars, Organic Gardening Guides, Ram Pumps, Companion Planting, Garden Therapy Manuals, Faith Healing
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Properties of Cold Process Soaps Prepared from Different
1. Available online at http://ajol.info/index.php/njbas/index
Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science (2010), 18(2): 315-321
ISSN 0794-5698
Cold- Process Synthesis and Properties of Soaps Prepared from Different Triacylglycerol
Sources
A.A. Warra1*
, L.G. Hassan2
, S.Y. Gunu1
and S.A. Jega1
1
Department of Biochemistry, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B 1144,
Aliero, Nigeria.
2
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, P.M.B 2346,
Sokoto, Nigeria.
[Author of Correspondence: aliyuwarra@yahoo.com]
315
ABSTRACT: This study was conducted to find out how different fats and oils produce soaps of
different characteristics. It describes cold-process saponification using different fats and oils. Shea nut
oil (SAP value:183.9mgKOH/g), groundnut oil (SAP value:187.7mgKOH/g) and Tallow (SAP value:
140.3mgKOH/g) were used. Colour, texture, lathering and cleansing power of the prepared soaps
were analyzed. shea butter soap had the best lathering capacity. The groundnut oil soap had the most
effective cleaning power .The soaps were also recommended for household use .This activity was also
provided to share a delight in chemistry with senior school students and to actively engage them in
hands-on-active learning.
Key words: cold-process, saponification, triacylglycerols and properties
INTRODUCTION
Soap is a mixture of sodium or potassium salts
of various naturally occurring fatty acids. Soap
is a substance of ancient origin, the
manufacture of which according to Gunstone et
al,(1986)has evolved from primitive beginnings
into a sophisticated chemical process. Evidence
of soap making dates back to the Egyptian and
Babylonians. Several millennia ago crude
mixture of animal fats and the alkaline plant ash
were found to generate crude soaps which
lathered and cleaned effectively (Phansteil et al,
1998). Through the centuries, there have been
other times when people were able to make
soap using sodium or potassium salts as is done
recently. When the Germans tribesmen of
Caesar’s time boiled goat tallow with potash
leached from the ashes of wood fires, they were
carrying out the same chemical reaction as one
carried out on a tremendous scales by modern
soap manufacture by hydrolysis of glycerides
(acylglycerols) (Morrison and Boyd, 2004).
The commonest oils used in soap making are
lard and tallow from animal sources, coconut,
palm and olive oil from vegetable source
(Pavila et al,1982).The Commercial
manufacturers use 1-7% excess fat to reduce the
harshness of soap, to produce a dense creamy
lather, and to leave the skin feeling smooth and
soft (Mabrouk, 2005).The formulation in this
paper uses 10% excess fat and oils.
This paper describes the cold-process
saponification and use hands-on-active learning
approach. This strategy is vital in teaching
students laboratory techniques and inquiry
skills. Laboratory exercises should be used
frequently throughout a science course to
promote science learning (Chiappetta and
Koballa, 2006). Therefore activities of this kind
should be encouraged in schools. This project
was carried out in the Chemistry Laboratory of
Haliru Abdu senior Arabic Secondary School,
Jega, Kebbi State, Nigeria.The fats and oils
used were obtained from Jega central market.
While the sodium hydroxide (analytical grade)
used as the alkali in the hydrolysis of the fats
and oils were obtained from laboratory store in
the department of chemistry, Haliru Abdu
Senior Arabic secondary School, Jega.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of Tallow from Animal Fat: The
preparation of fats for soap making consist of
cleaning the fats to be free from impurities
2. Warra et al.; Cold- Process Synthesis and Properties of Soaps Prepared from Different Triacylglycerol Sources
316
contained in it. This is called rendering. To
render the fat, all meat tissues were removed.
The fat was then placed in a stainless steel pot
containing 500cm3
of distilled water. The
mixtures were boiled until the fat melted. The
solution was allowed to cool down and left
overnight. The next day the fat had solidified
and floated to the top forming a layer of clean
fat. All the impurities being denser as the fat
remained in water underneath the fat.
Saponification Procedure: For each soap
formulation 200g/dm3
NaOH solution was
poured directly into the stainless steel container
(pot) containing the fat and oil in the ratio 1:1
(v/v). When the mixture of tallow and
groundnut oil was used the fat/oil mixture
contains 3:2 (v/v). The fats/oil was warmed
gently and was poured into the stainless steel
soap making pot followed by the alkali solution
to form an intimate mix and then stirred
frequently for 10-15 minutes using wooden
stirrer. Perfume and other ingredients were
added as additives at the last time before
pouring the saponification mixture into
moulds. After pouring, the soap was allowed to
harden by air-drying for 24hours to obtain the
soap bars, according to the method reported by
Warra,(2009) and the soap bars were then
observed for colour, texture, lathering and
cleaning power.
Note: To reduce the harshness of soap which
may be cause by excess sodium hydroxide,
10% excess fat and oil was used in the
formulations (super fatting).
Analytical method: Three different fats and
oils were used for this research; shea nut oil,
Tallow, and Ground nut oil. The chemical
analysis of the oils were carried out using the
methods adopted by Diamond, et al (1973),
Bassir,(1978), Plummer,1987, Association of
Official Analytical Chemists(AOAC) ,(1990)
Akpan et al,(2006), and Bahl, et al, (2007),
with modifications.
Saponification value:About 2g of the oil
sample was added to a flask with 30ml of
ethanolic KOH and was then attached to a
condenser for 30 minutes to ensure that the
sample is fully dissolved. After sample has
cooled 1ml of phenolphthalein was added and
titrated with 0.5 M HCl until a pink colour
indicated the end point.
The expression for saponification value (S.V.)
is given by: S.V = 56.1N (V0-V1)/M, where V0
= the volume of the solution used for blank test;
VI = the volume of the solution used for
determination; N = actual normality of the HCl
used; M = Mass of the sample.
Iodine value: 0.4g of the sample was weighed
into a conical flask and 20ml of carbon tetra
chloride was added to dissolve the oil. Then
25ml of Dam’s reagent was added to the flask
using a safety pipette in fume chamber. Stopper
was then inserted and the content of the flask
was vigorously swirled. The flask was then
placed in the dark for 2 hours 30 minutes. At
the end of this period, 20ml of 10% aqueous
potassium iodide and 125ml of water were
added using a measuring cylinder. The content
was titrated with 0.1M sodium-thiosulphate
solutions until the yellow colour almost
disappeared. Few drops of 1% starch indicator
was added and the titration continued by adding
thiosulphate drop wise until blue coloration
disappeared after vigorous shaking. The same
procedure was used for blank test and other
samples. The iodine value (I.V) is given by the
expression: I.V = 12.69C (V1-V2)/M, where C =
Concentration of sodium thiosulphate used; V1
= Volume of sodium thiosulphate used for
blank; V2 = Volume of sodium thiosulphate
used for determination, M = Mass of the
sample.
Acid value: 100 ml of neutral ethyl alcohol was
heated with 10g of oil or fat sample in a 250ml
beaker until the mixture began to boil. The
heating was stopped and the solution was
titrated with N/10 KOH solution, using two
drops of phenolphthalein as indicator with
consistent shaking for which a permanent pink
colour was obtained at the end point.
The Acid value was calculated using the
expression
A.V = 0.56 x No. of ml. N/10 KOH used.
pH Determination: The pH was determined
using a pH meter (827 pH lab Model). 10g of
the soap shavings was weighed and dissolved in
distilled water in a 100ml volumetric flask. This
was made up to prepare 10% soap solution in
line with literature report (Dalen and
3. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science (2010), 18(2): 315-321
317
Mamza,2009) The electrode of the pH meter
was inserted into the solution. The pH reading
was recorded. The steps were repeated using
soaps produced from each fat or oil.
Foam ability Tests: About 2.0g each of soap
(shavings) was added to a 500ml measuring
cylinder containing 100ml of distilled water as
reported by Isah, (2006) for synthetic detergent.
The mixture was shaken vigorously so as to
generate foams. After shaking for about 2
minutes, the cylinder was allowed to stand for
about 10 minutes. The height of the foam in the
solution was measured and recorded. The steps
were repeated using soaps produced from each
fat or oil.
Test for effectiveness in cleaning: To
determine the cleaning property of the prepared
soaps, a drop of oil was placed on four separate
strips of filter paper. The filter papers with the
oil spot were immersed in a separate test tubes
containing soap solution (2g soap
shavings/100ml distilled water) each was
shaken vigorously for 1 minute The filter
papers were removed and rinsed with distilled
water and the degree of cleanliness in each
filter paper was observed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the chemical analysis carried out
on the oils are presented in the Table 1.
Table 1: Chemical analysis of oils used
SAP value(
mgKOH/g)
Iodine value (I2/100g) Acid value
(mgKOH/g)
Tallow(Animal fat) 140.3 44.3 16.1
Shea-nut oil 183.9 54 .1 10.5
Ground nut oil 187.7 84.8 3.83
The values are mean of three replicates.
Chemical Analysis: The physicochemical
values are relatively similar to the literature
values. For the indigenous crude shea fat :
saponification value 183.7, was obtained ,the
value is lower than that of olive oil(192.0 ) and
sunflower oil(188.7) but higher than that of
beeswax(93.0) which are commonly used in
soap making (Mabrouk,2005).This indicates
that the oil could be used in soap making since
its saponification value fall within the range of
these oils. It could also substantially be used in
the preparation of cosmetic products (Warra,
2009). Oils with high saponificaton values such
as coconut oil (257.0) and palm oil (199.1) are
better used in soap making (Abayeh et al ,
1998). Some soap manufacturers blend their
oils with coconut oil (with high saponification
value) to get yield of better quality soaps.
Iodine value, 54.1(less than 100) was obtained
which shows that the oil belongs to class of
Non-drying oils which are useful in the
manufacture of soaps (Kochhar, 1998) . The
Acid value (10.5) authenticates the raw material
and conforms relatively to 10.49 3mgKOH/g
reported by Oyedele (2002), which signifies a
minimum purity. The values obtained for
Tallow includes; saponification
value(140.3mgKOH/g) which is lower than
185.00mgKOH/g in Cyperus esculentus oil
(Hassan et al,2007) and 213mgKOH/g in neem
seed oil (Akpan,1999) and 253.2mgKOH/g in
coconut oil (Oshinowo,1987) which are also
oils used in soap making. This is higher than
56.10mgKOH/g value obtained for cassia
siamea oil also recommended for soap making
(Hassan et al, 2005). 44.3I2/100g was obtained
as the iodine value of Tallow, this value is
relatively comparable to that of Avocado seed
oil (42.6) which is used in soap making (Sani
and Hassan ,2007). Tallow is one of the
principal fatty acid material used in soap
making. It contains mainly the palmitic, stearic
and oleic acids (Pavila et al, 1982). The acid
value (which indicates the amount of free fatty
acids present in the Tallow) was 16.1mgKOH/g
relatively similar to the value reported for
Albizia lebbeck,L seed oil (Hassan et al,2005)
recommended for soap making. This value also
shows that the oil is advantageous for soap
making (Owoyale,1987) For groundnut oil the
saponification value was 187.7 comparable to
the value obtained for corn oil (187.0)
4. Warra et al.; Cold- Process Synthesis and Properties of Soaps Prepared from Different Triacylglycerol Sources
318
(Zhang,et al,1986) .Even though ground nut oil
is a known edible oil its high saponification
value is an indication of its suitability for soap
making. The value is lower than that of olive
oil (192.1) ( Mabrouk, 2005) but higher than
that of bees wax ( 93.0 )which are all used in
soap making. The ground nut oil has an iodine
value of 84.8. This value is comparable to
(81.8) the value obtained for olive oil
(Almustapha et al, 1995) and 85.00I2 / 100g
value of Cyprus esculents oil (Hassan et al,
2007). High iodine value justifies utilization of
the oil in soap and shampoo productions (
Hassan et al, 2007 ) groundnut oil is an
example of non drying oils whose iodine
numbers are less than 100 ( Kochhar, 1998 )
they have the advantage of not undergoing
oxidation to form a film, hence are useful in
the manufacture of soaps ( Kochhar 1998 )
.3.83mgKOH / g was obtained as the acid
value which is comparable with 4mg KOH /g
recommended by a Cordex Alimenterius
commission for ground nuts ( Abayeh et al,
1998 ) The value is lower than 16.83mgKOH /
g for cassia siamea( Hassan at et al, 2005) but
higher than (1.84 ) reported for sesame seed oil
( Almustapha et al, 1995 ) which are used in
soap making.
Table 2: Foam height of soaps prepared.
Prepared Soaps Height of foam
over water(cm)
Animal fat soap 2.5
Shea nut oil soap 2.7
Ground nut oil soap 2.3
The values are mean of three replicates
Table 3: Soap Types, Lathering and Cleaning properties.
Soap
Formul
ation
Fat/oil Ingredient Type of
Soap
Colour
of soap
Texture Lathering Cleaning Possible
Uses
1 Mixture of
tallow and
g/oil
Perfume Designer Cream Soft
---
Effective Washing
2 Shea nut
oil
Perfume Multi-
purpose
White Very
hard
Excellent More
effective
Antiseptic
for bathing,
washing
3 Mixture of
tallow and
g/nut oil
Honey,
bees wax
and perfume
Toilet Brown Hard
---
Effective Antimicrobi
al
soap for
bathing
4 Tallow
(Animal
fat)
Sour lemon
and
Perfume
Laundry Milk Hard Very
Good
Effective Washing
5 Groundnu
t oil
Perfume Laundry Milk Soft Good Most effective Washing
Physical Analysis: Table 2 shows the results of
physical analysis carried out on the soap
samples produced. The result indicates that
colours of the soap formulation 1-5 were found
to be cream, white, brown and milk
respectively. The variation in colours could be
due to the degree of unsaturation of the fatty
acids. Increase in double bonds causes increase
in intensity of colour (Mabrouk, 2005). Another
possibility is that in all the formulations
glycerol was retained, salting-out was not
employed since it was cold-process method
used; therefore all the soap samples maintained
the color of the parent oil, similar to the
findings reported by Warra, et al (2009b) with
exception of formulation 3 which maintained
brown colour due to the addition of brown
colour ingredients (Honey and beeswax). For
the texture of the soap, the variations could be
or depends on the nature of their fatty acids
composition length of hydrocarbon chain and
nature of double bonds in the carboxylic acid
portion of the fat or oil. Soap made from shea
butter oil is the hardest followed by soap from
tallow. Iodine number is another probable
explanation for this variation. Oils with very
5. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science (2010), 18(2): 315-321
319
low iodine number yields soaps that are hard
(Pavila et al,1982).Shea butter has the lowest
iodine number compared to groundnut oil that
produce soft soap. As a result of their
molecular structures soaps are capable of
dispersing oils and similar water –insoluble
substances (Katz, 2000). The cleansing power
and lather produced by different soap can be
explained based on the fatty acids composition
of oil used in soap formulation, it was reported
that, lauric acid and myristic acid, which are all
saturated fatty acids produces soap with fluffy
lather and high cleansing power (phansteil et al,
1998). However, the observed difference in the
cleansing power and nature of lather formed in
the soap formulation may be due to the method
use in the soap preparation in addition the
nature of fatty acid composition of the fat or oil
used.
Table 4. pH of prepared soaps.
Soap formulations pH
1 8.3
2 8.0
3 7.8
4 8.5
5 8.8
The values are mean of three replicates
The students prepared soaps were all made by
the same method .The majority of students
preferred the soap made from shea butter oil for
some reasons; it can serve asa multipurpose
soap, it can be used for washing because of its
excellent lathering and more effective when
tested for its cleaning capability. Its use for
bathing is related to its exceptional healing
properties for the skin, shea butter contains
vitamin A and E which are important for
treatment of number of skin conditions
(American Shea butter Institute, 2008). Shea
butter has been used for centuries in Africa for
its unsurpassed ability to maintain and protect
the skin from environmental damage (Warra, et
al, 2009). Shea butter oil is abundantly
obtainable in most part of Kebbi state making it
easier for students to obtain and prepare their
home made soaps. The choice of honey soap
(formula 3) as antimicrobial soap (or bathing)
lies in its unique property of being
antimicrobial agent as well as powerful
antiseptic. The sugar concentration plus other
factors including low pH, hydrogen peroxide
and the flavonoids, phenolics and terpenes
make honey an antimicrobial agent (Mizrahi,
2008).One student asked why we included sour
lemon in the ingredient for soap formulation 4?
Sour lemon is used to get rid of the odour in
animal fat. Most fats (greases used in making
soaps are smelly and they produce smelly
soaps. In order to get rids of smells in soap
animal fats are treated by adding lemon juice,
vinegar or sour milk as described by Norman
(2007). We measured the pH of our prepared
soaps. Soap being salt of strong base and weak
acids should be weakly alkaline in aqueous
solution. But soap with free alkaline (PH 11 -
14) can cause damage to skin. Hence pH of 9-
11 and 3-5 are considered as high and low
levels respectively by NAFDAC a regulatory
Agency in Nigeria (Umar, 2002). All the
students formulated soaps were below the pH of
9. Our prepared soaps are closer to the pH of
between 7 and 9 which is better.
Conclusion: From this experiment the
students have increased their knowledge of the
organic chemistry of soaps. Students were
engaged in conversations and have expressed
their feelings such as “I learn how to combine,
many fats and oils to get soaps”. The students
also appreciated how the modern day chemistry
when blended with old tradition, accuracy and
knowledge of the right ingredients and suitable
methods yield the desired results. Another
student remarked that he enjoyed the soaps;
they wash more effectively than most
commercial soaps he used to purchase from the
market.
Fig. 1 Cold-processed soap samples
6. Warra et al.; Cold- Process Synthesis and Properties of Soaps Prepared from Different Triacylglycerol Sources
320
REFERENCES
Abayeh,O.J,Aina,E.A and Okuonghae (1998).
Oil content and oil quality characteristics of
some Nigerian oil seeds. Journal of pure
and Applied sciences 1(1):17- 23
American Shea butter Institute (2008). 21
reasons to use shea butter. Accessed online
at http://www.webbspawner.com/users /shea
butter. 17/01/2008.
AOAC(1990). Official Methods ofanalysis,
14th
Edition.Association of Official
Analytical Chemists, Washinton DC.
Akpan,U.G.,Jimoh,A and Mohammed, A.D.
(2006). Extraction and characterization and
Modification of Castor seed. Leonardo
Journal of Sciences.8:43-52
Akpan, U.G (1999): Extraction and
characterization of neem seed oil: In: (Ed)
Eyo, A.A, Aluko, P.O,
Garba, S.A, Ali, U.D, Lamai, S.L and
Olufeagba, S.O.2000. Biotechnology and
Sustainable development in Nigeria,
Proceedings of the 12th
Annual Conference
of the Biotechnology Society of Nigeria,
PP.63-66.
Almustafa,D.A, Bilbis,L.S,Rades J.M. and
Abubakar,M.K(1995).Chemical composition
of some oil seeds grown in Northern
Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Biochemistry
and M olecular Biology 10:39-43
Bahl, A and Bahl B.S (2007): Advanced
organic chemistry. S. chand and company
Ltd. Ram Nagar, New Delhi, India.
Bassir,O (1978). Handbook of Practical
Biochemistry. Ibadan University Press,
Nigeria.
Chiappetta, E.L and Koballa, Jr. T.R
(2006).Science Instruction in the Middle and
Secondary Schools 6th Edition.Pearson
education Inc. NJ
Dalen, M.B. and Mamza, P.A. (2009). Some
Physico-Chemical Properties of Prepared
Metallic Soap-Driers of Aluminium, Copper
and Zinc. Science World Journal 4(3): 7-9
Diamond, P.S and Denman, R.F (1973):
Laboratory techniques in Chemistry and
Biochemistry. (2nd
Edition). Butterworth &
Co. London
Fenando, C.E.C.and Akujobi, E.O (1987).
Chemical analysis of selected vegetable oils
and fats of sokoto state. Nigeria Journal of
Basic and Applied Sciences 1:11-14
Gunstone, F.D.,Harwod,J.L. and Padley,F.B.
(1986): The lipid Handbook. Chapman and
Hall Limited London, pp236-261
Hassan, L.G, Osoba, O, Umar, K.J and Inuwa
M(2007). Physico chemical Analysis of
Cyperus esculentus oil. Yauri Journal of
Arts and Science 2(1): 1-4.
Hassan, L.G; Umar, K.J; Abdullahi, S and
Mohammed, A.S(2005): Proximate
composition and physico-chemical
properties of seed and oil of cassia siamea.
Bulletion of SAN 26: 373-380.
Isah,A.G.(2006) .Production of Detergent from
Castor oil. Leonardo Journal of Practices
and Technologies 9 : 153-160
Katz,D.A.(2000).The Science of Soaps and
Detergents. Accessed at
http://www.chymer.com/soap%and20deterg
ent.pdf 12/1/2009
Kochhar,S.L(1998).Economic Botany in the
Tropics. 2nd
edition. Macmillan India Ltd.
Mabrouk, S.T.(2005).Making Useable, Quality
Opaque or Transparent Soap. Journal of
Chemical Education 82(10):1534-1537
Mizrahi, A (2008): Natural Medicine: Bee
Products. South African Journal of Natural
Medicine. Available at
http://www.naturalmedicine.co.za/sajnm_ma
in. Accessed17/1/2008
Morrison, R.T and Boyd, R.N (2004): Organic
Chemistry 6th
Edition. Pearson Education
(Singapore) pte Ltd. Indian Branch
Norman, P (2007): Traditional Soap making.
Available at http://ourworld.conserve.
Com/homepage/ paul_norman_3 Accessed
16/6/2007
Oshinowo, T(1987): Evaluation of some
Nigerian oils as Potential Raw materials for
Polyvinyl ChlorideThermal Stabilizers.
Journal of Nigerian Society of Chemical
Engineers 6(1):36-41.
Oyedele,A.O(2002).The skin tolerance of shea
fat employed as excipient in topical
preparationsNigerian Journal of Natural
Products and Medicine.66:26-29
Owoyale, J.A, Shock, M and Olagbemiro, T.
(1987) Some Chemical Constituents of the
Fruit of Parkia Clappertooniona as potential
7. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science (2010), 18(2): 315-321
321
industrial raw materials. Nigerian Journal of
Biotechnology 4:215-218
Pavila,L.D.,Lapman,G.M.L and Krisz,G. S.
(1982):Introduction to Organic Laboratory
Techniques. 2nd
Edition,Saunders College
Publishers,England
Phansteil O.N, Dueno, E, Xianghong Wang, Q
(1998): Synthesis of Exotic Soaps in the
Chemistry Laboratory. Journal of chemical
Education. 75(5):612-614
Plummer, D.T (1987): An introduction to
Practical Biochemistry. 3rd
Edition.
McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK)
Limited. Maidenhead. Berkshire. England.
Robertson, D.L (2006). Saponification and
Making Soap. Experiment 8- Chemistry102
Experiments Index. Available at
http://www.miracosta.cc.ca.us/home/dlr/102
exp8.htm Accessed 22/3/2009
Sani,N.A and Hassan,L.G(2007).Preparation
and analysis of the physical and chemical
Properties of soap from lageneria
siceraria(Bottle ground)seeds oil.Namoda
Tech-scope Journal. 7(1):23-32
Umar,M (2002) Cosmetics, Soaps, Detergents
and NAFDAC’s Regulatory Requirements.
A paper presented at a Training workshop
for Small and Medium Scale Enterprises
Organized by UNDP/JCSL and Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, Maiduguri, Borno
State, Nigeria.
Warra,A.A.(2009).Extraction and Chemical
Analysis of Indigenous Shea nut oil.
Proceedings of the 1st
National conference
of the Academic Staff Union of Polytechnics.
WUFP Chapter Nigeria. pp 160-162
Warra, A.A. ,Gunu,S.Y, Jega,S.A and Aisha,
J.A.(2009a). Soap production from Shea nut
butter International Journal of Natural and
Applied Sciences, 5(4): 410-412
Warra, A.A., Hassan, L.G and Gunu, S.Y.
(2009b). Physicochemical Analysis and
Alkali Hydrolysis of some Selected Fats and
Oils. International Journal of Physical
Science. 4(1):61-65
Zhang, H.Z, Harris, M.A., Ali, Z., and Nar-lu,
N.L.9 (1986).Yellow nut-sedge
(c.esculentus L.) Tuber Oil as a Fuel.
Industrial crops and Products 5(3): 177-
181.