The document provides guidance on writing techniques such as planning, collecting information, ordering information, and the writing process. It discusses identifying the audience and purpose of a document. Common ways to order information discussed include chronological order for narratives, stages of a process, general to specific order and vice versa, most to least important, advantages and disadvantages, comparison and contrast, and problem-solution patterns. Methods for collecting information include mind maps, tables, charts, and different types of charts. The writing process involves prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing.

1. Writing techniques
By
Ayesha Yousaf Chihna

2. Contents
1. Plan writing identify audience purpose and message .
2. Collect information in various form such as mind maps ,tables,charts,l
3. Order information such as
 Chronology for a narrative
 Stages of a process
 Form general to specific and vice versa
 Form most important to least important
 Advantages and disadvantages
 Comparison and contrast
 Problem and solution pattern
4.Write arrangmentative and descriptive forms of writing using different
methods of developing ideas.

3. Plan writing
“In writing essays or some paragraph or any other
material the pre writing strategy is called plan writing”
In this session we will discuss about
1. Identify audience
2. Purpose
3. And message

4. Audience
Determining the Best Audience
 What is an audience? The audience is the reader of the essay. While anyone
that reads an essay can be considered a part of the audience, the target
audience is the group of readers the essay was intended to reach.
Why is audience important?
 It is important to identify the intended and most appropriate audience for a
piece in order to put the writing in the proper context.
 For instance, imagine if someone purchased the book Green Eggs and
Ham by Dr. Seuss as a cookbook for a budding chef - there is a focus on
food, right? It is understood that although the topic of food is a running theme
throughout Green Eggs and Ham, the target audience is young children just
learning to read, not the five-star chef at your favorite restaurant.

5. Contin……..
Here are a few tips to help you with identifying your target
audience
. Isolate what types and/or groups of people the
content of the book would interest.
Identify other books that are comparable to your
book and look at the profiles of those books’ main
buyers/readers.
Pinpoint what is special about your book.
. Determine some demographics.

6. Purpose
The reason the writer composes the paragraph.
Identifying Common Academic Purposes
The purpose for a piece of writing identifies the reason
you write a particular document.
 Basically, the purpose of a piece of writing answers the
question “Why?”
 For example, why write a play? To entertain a packed
theater.
 Why write instructions to the babysitter? To inform

7. Count……..
In academic settings, the reasons for
writing fulfill four main purposes:
 to summarize
to analyze
to synthesize
 to evaluate

8. Message
 Key messages are the core of your writing. Key
messages open the door to direct communication
with your audience, because they bridge what your
audience already knows and where you are trying to
taken.

9. CREATING KEY MESSAGES
 To get your audience to ask why and how, you ask yourself the same
questions from your starting assertion.
 Each question helps you break down the rationale behind your intentions, and
provides the step-by-step statements that back up your key message.
 The only way to find your key message is to repeatedly ask yourself "Why?
How?", until you come to the core, the very reason for something happening.
Asking yourself these questions will reveal to yourself the information you can
take for granted that your audiences need to know and understand.
 Key Messages are:
 Concise: avoid jargon and acronyms
 Active: make every sentence active
 Positive: talk about what one can do, not what you can't
 Short: one memorable sentence, 10-15 seconds to say.
 Specific: address a particular challenge and audience

10. Information collection

11. What Is a Mind Map?
 A mind map is a diagram that displays information visually. You can
create mind maps using pen and paper, or you can use an online mind
mapping tool such as MindMeister.
 the rules for creating a mind map are simple:
1) Write the subject in the center of your paper / canvas.
2) Draw branches that point away from the center. Each branch symbolizes
one thought or idea related to the subject. Use meaningful keywords to
write these ideas onto the branches.
3) From each branch more ideas can branch off.
4) Use colors, icons and imageswhenever possible. These function
as mental triggers and can help spark new ideas in you, which is important
during brainstorming sessions.

12. Tables
 When planning your writing, it is important to consider the
best way to communicate information to your audience,
especially if you plan to use data in the form of numbers,
words, or images that will help you construct and support your
argument.
 Tables present lists of numbers or text in columns and can be
used to synthesize existing literature, to explain variables, or
to present the wording of survey questions.
 Tables are typically used to present raw data, not when you
want to show a relationship between variables.

13. Cont……
 Tables should be:
 Centered on the page.
 Numbered in the order they appear in
the text.
 Referenced in the order they appear
in the text.
 Labeled with the table number and
descriptive title above the table.
 Labeled with column and/or row
labels that describe the data,
including units of measurement.
 Set apart from the text itself; text
does not flow around the table.

14. Charts
 Anchor charts are vital tools to enable writers illustrate their ideas.
When brainstorming for writing, writers can use anchor charts to make
their ideas visible. Thus, recording of brainstormed ideas, the strategies
employed, cues and processes that the writer uses, are organized and
made presentable through anchor charts.
 Anchor charts as a tool for brainstorming for writing should observe the
following rules:
 Should be colourful and attractive.
 Anchor charts should be written in academic language.
 The chart should be clear and easily understood when seen.
 The writer should frequently refer to it.

15. How the usage of anchor charts can be
made more effective
 Effective writing using anchor charts must make use of the
following:
 Must have a centralized focus. In this case the writer must
have a single focal point from which the anchor strategy used
is based upon.
 The anchor charts must be properly organized in the way the
charts appear in the writing structure.
 To improve writing techniques, writers should use anchor
charts they are familiar with.
 Writers should make anchor charts conspicuously positioned
in their reports where readers can catch quick view.

16. Types of charts
 There are several different types of charts and graphs. The
four most common are probably
1. line graphs,
2. bar graphs and histograms,
3. pie charts, and
4. Cartesian graphs.
 They are generally used for, and best for, quite different
things

18. Order information tools
Order
the arrangement or disposition of people or things in relation to
each other according to a particular sequence, pattern, or
method.
Here we will discuss about
Chronology for a narrative
Stages of a process
From general to specific and vice versa
From most important to least important
Advantages and disadvantage
Comparison and contrast
Problem solution pattern

19. Chronology for narrative
Chronology meaning
(of a record of events) following the order in
which they occurred.
Using chronology as narration involves
relating events in the order in which they occur. A
speaker will almost certainly employ narrative
chronology if he or she uses an anecdote or
extended example, but as demonstrated by the
sample outline below, whole speeches can be
organized this way.

20. Cont……
 When information in a passage is organized by the time in which
each event occurred, it is organized chronologically.
 Nonfiction passages that are organized chronologically often
contains dates. Fiction passages or narratives are more subtle
and are organized chronologically but usually have no dates.
 A narratives or story is a journey through time, and all of the
events are arranged in order of time; therefore, every story has
a beginning, middle, and end.
 Even if an author uses flashbacks, flash-forwards, or otherwise
manipulates the time in his or her text, the events still occur
along a timeline.
 Stories require the passage of time; therefore, all stories are
organized chronologically. Sometimes time will stop in a

21. The Writing Process
 Writing is a process that involves at least four distinct steps: prewriting,
drafting, revising, and editing
1. Prewriting
 Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document. It
includes thinking, taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and
gathering information (e.g., interviewing people, researching in the library,
assessing data).
2. Drafting
 Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs.
Here you concentrate upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully. Here
you also begin to connect your ideas.
 This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling yourself what you know
and think about the topic.

22. 3.Revising
 Revision is the key to effective documents. Here you think more
deeply about your readers’ needs and expectations. The document
becomes reader-centered. How much support will each idea need
to convince your read?
 At this stage you also refine your prose, making each sentence as
concise and accurate as possible. Make connections between ideas
explicit and clear.
4.Editing
 1. Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and spelling. The
last thing you should do before printing your document is to spell
check it.
 2. Don’t edit your writing until the other steps in the writing process
are complete.

23. From specific to general
 Induction is a method of
reasoning that moves from
specific instances to a
general conclusion. Also
called inductive reasoning.
 In an inductive argument,
a rhetor(that is, a speaker
or writer) collects a number
of instances and forms a
generalization that is meant
to apply to all instances.

24. From general to specific
 In composition, general-to-
specific order is a method
of developing a paragraph, essay,
or speech by moving from a
broad observation about
a topic to specific details in
support of that topic.
 Also known as
the deductive methodof
organization, general-to-specific
order is more commonly used
than the reverse method,
specific-to-general order
(the inductive method
In a sentence, make a general observation
about what you see going on in this painting
(The Collector's Office, 1615, by Pieter
Brueghel the Younger). Then, after further
studying the images, identify the specific details
that contribute to your overall impression of the
painting. (Hulton Fine Art Collection/Getty

25. From most important to least
important
Most essays move from the least to the most
important point, and the paragraphs are arranged in
an effort to build the essay’s strength
. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to begin with
your most important supporting point, such as in an
essay that contains a thesis that is highly debatable.
 When writing a persuasive essay, it is best to begin
with the most important point because it immediately
captivates your readers and compels them to
continue reading.

26. Comparison and contrast
A simple chart of comparison is a
method of organization used when a
decision must be made among
several products, techniques or job
candidates. This method of
organization identifies the
similarities and differences among
the products or items being
discussed. Comparison and contrast
is a method that uses visual tools
such as diagrams, charts or lists to
convey information.

27. Advantages and disadvantages
 This pattern organizes information about a topic by dividing it up
into its "good" and "bad" parts, or pro's and con's. It is effective to
use when a writer wishes to objectively discuss both sides of an
issue without taking a persuasive stance. This allows the reader to
weigh both sides of an issue. As with the compare-contrast pattern,
there are a number of possible variations to an advantages-
disadvantages pattern. The simplest form of this pattern is shown
below.
 Suppose, for example, that a writer's stated purpose is to describe
the advantages and disadvantages of attending a two-year college.
One way to arrange the information is to divide it into two main
sections, one for the advantages and one for the disadvantages. In
this scenario, the information contained within each main section
will represent the specific topics of analysis (cost, accessibility, etc)

28. Cont……….
Advantages and
Disadvantages Example
Advantages
Cost
Accessibility
 Disadvantages
Number of educational
programs
Quality of instruction

29. Problem solution pattern
A problem-solution pattern divides information into two
main sections, one that describes a problem and one that
describes a solution. This pattern is typically used in
persuasive writing, where the writer's general purpose is to
convince the reader to support a certain course of action
In the problem section, the writer identifies different
aspects of the problem being discussed and offers
evidence of these problems. In the solution section, the
writer identifies a potential solution and supports the
effectiveness of this solution over others.

30. Problem-Solution Example
Problem: Motorized Transportation
 Increasing traffic congestion
 Increasing pollution
 Increasing "road rage" from traffic-related stress
Solution: Riding Bicycles
 Bike riding reduces the number of motorized vehicles in
use
 Bike riding is not a source of pollution
 Bike riding has physical and psychological health
benefits

31. Write arrangmentative and descriptive
forms of writing
In an argumentative essay, the writer is taking
a position, or a "side," related to a topic about
which opinions could vary. The position of the
writer is established in the thesis statement. Then
the essay presents reasons, evidence, and
examples that support the writer's position.
Sometimes, the argumentative essay will also
include a counter-argument. The writer will point
out that some people disagree with him for a
specific reason. Then, he will present evidence to
refute that reason.

32. Examples of Argumentative
Essay:
 . High school students should be required to do community
service.
 a. Helps students to become well-rounded citizens.
 b. A way for students to give back to their communities.
 c. Looks good on college applications.
 d. Counter-argument-some might claim that students should
spend more time studying or participating in extra-curricular
activities, but there are ways to serve the community that do
not take much time, like taking canned goods to a food bank
or helping once a year at a back to school supply drive.

33. Descriptive writing
 The primary purpose of descriptive writing is to describe a person, place
or thing in such a way that a picture is formed in the reader's mind
When to use:
Before
reading
During reading After reading
How to use: Individually
With small
groups
Whole class
setting

34. Example of descriptive writing
 Some examples of descriptive text include:
 The sunset filled the entire sky with the deep color of rubies,
setting the clouds ablaze.
 The waves crashed and danced along the shore, moving up
and down in a graceful and gentle rhythm like they were
dancing.

35. • Word • Definition • Example Sentence
• Abate
• v. to become less
active, less intense,
or less in amount
• As I began my
speech, my feelings
of nervousness
quickly abated.
• Abstract
• adj. existing purely
in the mind; not
representing actual
reality
• Julie had trouble
understanding the
appeal of
the abstractpainting.
•

36. • Bias
• n. a
preconception
that prevents
objectivity
• It’s important to
avoid bias whe
investigating a
crime.
• Bittersweet
• adj. tinged with a
feeling of
sadness
• The ending of
romance movie
was bitterswee
• Bolster
• v. to support,
strengthen, or
fortify
• If we work
together, we
should be able
lift and
then bolster the

37. • Confine
• v. to put limits
on; to restrict
• We are going
to confinethe
use of this
drinking
fountain.
• Consensus
• n. overall
agreement
• After weeks of
debating, the
panel finally
came to
a consensus.

38. • Refute
• v. to prove to be
untrue,
unfounded, or
incorrect
• The
student refuted t
he professor’s
claim in class.
• Reinforce
• v. to strengthen
or add support
to
• We can use
these pipes
to reinforce the
structure.

39. • Urge
• n. desire or impulse
• v. to encourage or
persuade
• He had the urge to tell
his parents about his
acceptance to
Columbia but decided
against it.
• She urged her sister
to apply to Stanford.
• Warrant
• v. to prove to be
reasonable
• Wanting to look
cool in front of
your friends
doesn’t warrant