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Intelligence and Academic Achievement
Week 9
*The Concept of Intelligence
What is intelligence?
• Intelligence: the ability to solve problems and adapt
and learn from experience
* Can only be evaluated indirectly
*Intelligence Tests: The Binet
Tests 1
Binet stressed that the core of intelligence
consists of complex cognitive processes:
• Memory, imagery, comprehension, and judgment
• Mental age (MA): an individual’s level of mental
development relative to others
* Compared to chronological age (CA), the age from birth
* MA scores correspond to CA scores for an average child
• Intelligence quotient (IQ): an individual’s MA divided by
CA multiplied by 100
*Intelligence Tests: The Binet
Tests 2
Stanford-Binet 5: Fluid reasoning, knowledge,
quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning,
working memory
*Intelligence Tests: The
Wechsler Scales
WAIS
WISC
WPPSI
*The Use and Misuse of
Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests predict school and job success
• Moderately correlated with work performance
Many other factors contribute to success in school
and work
• Motivation to succeed, physical and mental health, and social
skills
Intelligence tests should be used in conjunction with
other information
• Developmental history, medical background, school
performance, social competency, family experiences, etc.
*Theories of Multiple
Intelligences 1
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
• Intelligence comes in three forms:
* Analytical intelligence: ability to analyze, judge, evaluate,
compare, and contrast
* Creative intelligence: ability to create, design, invent,
originate, and imagine
* Practical intelligence: ability to use, apply, implement, and put
ideas into practice
*Theories of Multiple
Intelligences 2
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
Now, from Gardner himself:
*Theories of Multiple
Intelligences 3
Emotional intelligence similarly emphasizes
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and practical
aspects
• Ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and
adaptively, understand emotion, and manage emotions
in oneself and others
* Concept originally developed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer
• Critics argue that emotional intelligence broadens the
concept of intelligence too far to be useful and has not
been adequately assessed and researched
*Theories of Multiple
Intelligences 4
Do people have one or many intelligences?
• Critics of multiple intelligences argue the research base
to support them has not yet been developed; and
Gardner’s classification in particular seems arbitrary
• Many psychologists continue to support the concept of
general intelligence
• Some experts conclude that individuals also have
specific intellectual abilities
• Scores on tests of general intelligence are substantially
correlated with school grades and achievement test
performance
*The Neuroscience of
Intelligence
Studies using MRI scans suggest a moderate
correlation between brain size and intelligence
Most prominent finding is that a distributed
neural network involving the frontal and parietal
lobes is related to higher intelligence
Neurological speed may also play a role in
intelligence
*The Influence of Heredity and
Environment 1
*The Influence of Heredity and
Environment 2
Variables that correlate with intelligence include how
much parents communicate with their children in the
first three years of life, and schooling
Flynn effect refers to a worldwide increase in scores
over a relatively short amount of time
• 1930-present
Environmental influences are complex
• Growing up with all the “advantages” does not guarantee
success, nor does being “disadvantaged” guarantee failure
*Group Comparisons and Issues 1
Cross-cultural comparisons show that cultures
vary in what it means to be intelligent
Cultural bias is an issue in testing
• Early intelligence tests favored people from urban
environments, middle socioeconomic status, and
non-Latino Whites
• Non-native English speakers or nonstandard English
speakers are at a disadvantage in understanding
questions
*Group Comparisons and Issues 2
One potential influence on test performance is
stereotype threat: a fear that one’s behavior
might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s
group
*Group Comparisons and Issues 3
Researchers have strived to develop culture-fair
tests, designed to avoid cultural bias
Most intelligence tests reflect what the dominant
culture thinks is important
• For example, the same words may have different
meaning for different groups
• Different attitudes, values, and motivation can affect
performance
*Group Comparisons and Issues 3
*Group Comparisons and Issues 4
*The Development of
Intelligence
Tests of infant intelligence are less verbal and
contain elements related to perceptual-motor
development and social interaction
• Bayley Scales of Infant Development
* Cognitive, language, motor, socioemotional, and adaptive skills
• Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence
* Unlike the Bayley scales, the Fagan test is correlated with
measures of intelligence in older children
*The Development of
Intelligence
*The Development of
Intelligence
*Stability and Change in
Intelligence Through
Adolescence
Intelligence test scores can fluctuate dramatically
across the childhood years
Children are adaptive—their intelligence changes
but remains connected with earlier points in
development
*Intelligence in Adulthood1
Crystallized intelligence: an individual’s
accumulated information and verbal skills
Fluid intelligence: the ability to reason abstractly
Note that the data were collected in a
cross-sectional manner
• Cross-sectional: assess individuals of different ages at
the same point in time
• Longitudinal: study the same individuals over a period
of time
*Intelligence in Adulthood1
*Intelligence in Adulthood 2
Seattle Longitudinal Study
*Intelligence in Adulthood 3
With cognitive mechanics, decline with aging is likely
• “Hardware” of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological
architecture of the brain
• Speed and accuracy in sensory input, attention, visual and
motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and
categorization
Cognitive pragmatics may decline but can also
improve in old age
• Culture-based “software” of the mind
• Reading and writing, language comprehension, educational
qualifications, professional skills, self and life skills
*Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability is a condition of limited
mental ability in which individual:
• Has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional
intelligence test
• Has difficulty adapting to the demands of everyday life
• First exhibits these characteristics by age 18
About 5 million Americans fit this definition of
intellectual disability
There are several ways to define degrees of
intellectual disability
Type of
Intellectual Disability
IQ Range
Percentage of Individuals with
an Intellectual Disability
Mild 55 to 70 89%
Moderate 40 to 54 6%
Severe 25 to 39 4%
Profound Below 25 1%
Classification of
Intellectual
Disability
Level of Support Needed
Intermittent Supports are provided “as needed.” The individual may need
episodic or short-term support during life-span transitions (such as
job loss or acute medical crisis). Intermittent supports may be low
or high intensity when provided.
Limited Supports are intense and relatively consistent over time. They are
time-limited but not intermittent, require fewer staff members,
and cost less than more intense supports. These supports likely will
be needed for adaptation to the changes involved in the school-to-
adult period.
Extensive Supports are characterized by regular involvement (for example,
daily) in at least some setting (such as home or work) and are not
time-limited (for example, extended home-living support).
Pervasive Supports are constant, very intense, and are provided across
settings. They may be of a life-sustaining nature. These supports
typically involve more staff members and intrusiveness than the
other support categories.
*Intellectual Disability
Organic intellectual disability: a genetic disorder
or lower level of intelligence due to brain damage
• Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, prenatal
malformation, metabolic disorders, and diseases that
affect the brain
• Most have IQs between 0 and 50
Cultural-familial intellectual disability: cases
with no evidence of organic brain damage
• Emerge from below-average intellectual environments
• Most have IQs between 55 and 70
• Disability is usually not noticeable in adulthood
*Giftedness 1
Those who are gifted have above-average
intelligence (IQ of 130 or higher) and/or a
superior talent for something
• Approximately 6% of U.S. students are classified as
gifted
A word of caution regarding representation
• Baltimore Sun investigation in HS (watch the
video link on Blackboard)
*Creativity
Creativity is the ability to think about something
in novel and unusual ways and to come up with
unique, good solutions to problems
Creativity requires divergent thinking, which
produces many answers to the same question
• Conventional intelligence tests measure
convergent thinking, in which there is only one
correct answer
*Creativity
Creative process has often been described as a
five-step sequence:
• 1. Preparation
• 2. Incubation
• 3. Insight
• 4. Evaluation
• 5. Elaboration
*Creativity in Adulthood
Creativity often peaks in adulthood
• About 80% of individuals’ most important creative
contributions are completed by age 50
• Creativity often peaks in the forties before declining
• Decline is often not dramatic
Age of decline varies with the domain involved
• In philosophy and history, older adults continue to show
as much creativity as when they were younger
• In lyric poetry, abstract mathematics, and theoretical
physics, the peak of creativity is often reached in the
twenties or thirties
Contemporary Approaches to
Student Learning and Assessment
Montessori MethodMontessori MethodMontessori Method
Schools and Developmental Standards
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)
focuses on the typical developmental patterns of
children and the uniqueness of each child
• Emphasizes creating settings that reflects children’s
interests and capabilities while encouraging active
learning
• Desired outcomes include critical thinking, cooperative
work, problem solving, self-regulatory skills, and learning
enjoyment
• Individual programs vary; and mixed outcomes have
been seen
Head StartHead Start
Schools and Developmental Standards
There is no consensus about the curriculum for
early childhood education programs
Many high-quality early childhood education
encompasses both traditional and constructivist
approaches
• Also focus on cognitive and socioemotional development
Elementary and Junior High Schools
Children experience new roles and obligations
after beginning elementary school
• Too often, early schooling proceeds on the basis of
negative feedback, having an effect on self-esteem
Transition to middle or junior high school
can be stressful
• Simultaneous individual, family, and school changes
Elementary and Junior High Schools
Critics argue middle schools should include
activities that reflect a wide range of individual
differences in biological and psychological
development
Carnegie Foundation (1989) conducted an in-
depth evaluation of U.S. middle schools
• Middle schools are massive and impersonal, using
irrelevant curricula and lacking access to health care and
counseling
• Recommended a complete overhaul to smaller
“communities” with lower student-to-counselor ratios,
new curricula, and more in-school physical education
High Schools
To many, high schools exhibit similar problems
• Critics stress that U.S. high schools foster passivity,
and schools should create multiple pathways for identity
achievement
• Many students graduate high school with inadequate
reading, writing, and mathematical skills
 Enter college in need of remediation classes
• High school dropouts do not have the skills needed to
obtain decent jobs or be informed citizens
• Transition to high school is often difficult; and for many,
high school is more about navigating the social world
than about getting an education
High Schools
U.S. high schools often offer a wide array of
extracurricular activities, beyond academic courses
Benefits of student participation in extracurricular
activities:
• Higher grades
• Greater school engagement
• Less likelihood of dropping out
• Improved probability of going to college
• Higher self-esteem
• Lower rates of depression, delinquency, and substance abuse
High Schools
U.S. high school dropout rates have declined
overall
• Dropout rate for Latino adolescents remains high,
although this too is declining
• Lowest dropout rate is seen among Asian Americans
• Males are more likely to drop out than females
• Higher dropout rates are seen in low-income areas of
inner cities
 In some large cities, the dropout rate is as high as 50%
College and Adult Education
Transition from high school to college parallels
earlier transitions
Benefits of transition:
• Movement to a larger, more impersonal school
• Interaction with peers of more diverse backgrounds
• Increased focus on achievement and assessment
• Greater independence from parental monitoring
• Challenged intellectually by academic work
• More opportunities to explore lifestyles and values
Daily Activity Self-Ratings and
College Students’ Happiness
College and Adult Education
Adult education refers to all forms of schooling and
learning in which adults participate
• Literacy training, community development, university
credit programs, on-the-job training, and continuing
professional education
 Offered by colleges, libraries, museum, government agencies,
businesses, and churches
• Large number of adults pursue education and advanced
degrees on a part-time basis
 Increased leisure time, the need to update information/skills,
enjoyment of learning, keeping the mind active
• Women represent the majority of adult learners
Educating Children with Disabilities
Educating Children with Disabilities
Types of learning disabilities:
• Dyslexia: severe impairment in the ability to read and spell
• Dysgraphia: involves difficulty in handwriting
• Dyscalculia: difficulty in math computation; also known as
developmental arithmetic disorder
Precise cause of disabilities has not been determined
• Likely that they are due to problems integrating information
from multiple brain regions or subtle difficulties in brain
structures and functions
Interventions often focus on reading ability
Educating Children with
Disabilities: ADHD
Attention hyperactivity deficit disorder (ADHD) is a
disability in which children consistently show one
or more of the following characteristics:
Educating Children with
Disabilities: ADHD
No definitive causes of ADHD have been found,
though several have been proposed
• Genetic inheritance
• Brain damage
• Cigarette and alcohol exposure during pregnancy
• Higher levels of maternal stress
• Low birth weight
Number of differences found in brain scanning
techniques
Educating Children with
Disabilities: Autism Spectrum
Disorders
Educating Children with
Disabilities: Autism Spectrum
Disorders
Brain structure and neurotransmitter abnormalities
may contribute to ASD
• Genetic factors may be involved
Boys are estimated to be five times more likely to
develop ASDs
Children benefit from a well-structured classroom,
individualized instruction, and small-group
instruction
• Behavioral management techniques are sometimes
effective in helping autistic children learn
Educating Children with
Disabilities: IDEA
Socioeconomic Status and
Ethnicity in Schools
Achievement:
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation: doing something to obtain
something else
Intrinsic motivation: internal motivation to do
something for its own sake
Parental motivational practices are linked to
children’s motivation
Students’ internal motivation and intrinsic interest
increases when they have opportunities to make
choices and take responsibility for learning
Achievement:
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
As students move from the early elementary
school years to the high school years, intrinsic
motivation tends to decline
• Largest increase in extrinsic motivation occurs between
the sixth and seventh grades
• Students compare themselves more with other students
because they are increasingly graded in terms of relative
performance
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can operate
simultaneously
• Extrinsic motivation alone is not a good strategy
Dweck (1986)
Mastery Motivation and Mindset 1
Mastery orientation: task-oriented, concerned with
learning strategies and the process of
achievement rather than ability or outcome
Helpless orientation: seeming trapped by the
experience of difficulty, and attributing difficulty to
lack of ability
Mastery-oriented individuals often instruct
themselves to pay attention, think carefully, and
remember strategies
• Feel challenged and excited by difficult tasks
Mastery Motivation and Mindset 2
Performance orientation: focused on winning
rather than on an achievement outcome
• Happiness results from winning
Mastery and performance goals are not mutually
exclusive
• Can be both mastery- and performance-oriented
• Combination often benefits students’ success
Mindsets
Mastery Motivation and Mindset 3
Mindset: the cognitive view that individuals
develop for themselves
• Fixed mindset: belief that qualities are carved in stone
and cannot change
• Growth mindset: belief that qualities can change and
improve through effort
• Influences whether individuals are optimistic or
pessimistic; shapes their goals and how hard they will
strive to reach their goals; and affects achievement and
success in school and sports
• Shaped by parents, teachers, and coaches
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy: the belief that one can master a
situation and produce favorable outcomes
Students with low self-efficacy avoid learning
tasks, especially those that are challenging
Those with high self-efficacy work eagerly at
learning tasks
Children’s and adolescents’ development is
shaped by their parents’ self-efficacy
Goal Setting, Planning, and
Self-Monitoring
Self-efficacy and achievement improve when
individuals set goals that are specific, proximal, and
challenging
• Students can set both long-term (distal) and short-term
(proximal) goals; short-term goals are steps toward
long-term goals
• Challenging goals are a commitment to self-improvement; but
goals are best matched to one’s skill level
Individuals should plan how to reach their goals and
monitor how well they are sticking to their plan
• Delaying gratification is important
+
Differences in Learners
Motivation
 Not enhanced by $$
 Prioritized, meaningful material
= motivation
+
Differences in Learners
 Working Memory
 Reasoning
 Reading Comprehension
 Control of attention
+
Differences in Learners
Anxiety
 Hurts working memory
 Write about it!
+
Differences in Learners
Expertise
 Chase & Simon (1973) study of
chess masters
 Chunking
Careers, Work, and Retirement
Quality of schooling and achievement orientation
provide the foundation for career success and the type
of work pursued
Children have idealistic fantasies of career choices
• In the late teens and twenties, career decision making
becomes more serious
 Different career opportunities are explored
• In college, the focus becomes choosing a major or
specialization designed to lead to work in a specific field
• By the early to mid-twenties, many individuals complete
education or training and enter a full-time occupation
Careers
Career mystique: ingrained cultural beliefs that
engaging in hard work for long hours through
adulthood will automatically lead to status,
security, and happiness
• Idealized concept of a career path toward achieving the
American dream
• Never been a reality for many individuals, especially
ethnic minorities, women, and poorly educated adults
• Global outsourcing and economic changes have reduced
job security for the middle class
Work
Increased number of adolescents work part-time while
attending school
• Estimated 80–90% of adolescents are employed at some point
Large amounts of time in paid labor produces limited
developmental benefits for youth
• Associated with risky behavior and costs to physical health
Work does benefit many youth in low-income, urban
contexts by providing economic benefits and adult
monitoring
• May increase school engagement, decrease delinquency
Work in Emerging Adulthood
Along with the increasing number of adults in
higher education, many leave home and enter
careers at later ages
• Changing economic conditions have made the job
market more competitive
 Increased demand for highly skilled workers
Adults who don’t go to college may experience a
lowered ability to get a good job
• Job market for those with only a high school education
has worsened
Work in Adulthood
Most individuals spend about one-third of their
lives at work
Work defines people in fundamental ways
• Financial standing
• Housing
• Ways in which time is spent
• Where people live
• Friendships
• Health
• For some, identity and a structure and rhythm to life
Work in Adulthood
One trend in the U.S.: the disappearing long-term
career for an increasing number of adults
• Especially men in private-sector jobs
• Dramatic increase in technology and companies’ use of
cheaper labor abroad
Work can be stressful to the point of health risks
• Low salaries
• Lack of advancement opportunities
• Uncertain job expectations
• Long hours
• Policies out of step with today’s workforce
Work in Adulthood
Unemployment produces stress regardless of
whether the job loss is temporary, cyclical, or
permanent
• Related to increased physical problems, mental
problems, substance use and abuse, and marital
difficulties
Stress related to unemployment comes from the
income loss and financial hardships, but also from
decreased self-esteem
• Those who cope well with unemployment have financial
sources to rely on or family members’ support
Work in Adulthood
Dual-career couples may have special problems
finding a work-family life balance
Number of two-earner couples has increased
considerably in recent decades
As more U.S. women work, the division of
responsibility for work and family has changed:
• Husbands take more responsibility for maintaining the
home
• Women take more responsibility for breadwinning
• Men show greater interest in families and parenting
Work in Adulthood
Gender inequalities still persist, even as couples in
dual-earner families strive for gender equality
• Career decisions are often made in favor of men’s
greater earning power
• Women spend more time in homemaking and caring for
children
Work in Late Adulthood
Percentage of older U.S. adults still working or
returning to work has been increasing since the
1990s
• Working full-time longer to secure enough money to
fund retirement
Cognitive ability is one of the best predictors of job
performance for older adults
• Fewer absences, accidents, and increased job
satisfaction compared to younger adults
Retirement
Option to retire is a twentieth-century phenomenon
in the U.S., largely due to the Social Security
System
• On average, today’s workers will spend 18 years of their
lives in retirement
• Life paths to retirement in people’s sixties:
 Do not retire; continue working
 Retire from career work, then take up a different job
 Retire from career work and do volunteer work
 Retire from a postretirement job and go on to another
 Move in and out of the workforce, with no retirement
 In poor health, move to a disability status and into retirement
 Layoff defined as “retirement”
Retirement
Approximately 7 million retired Americans return to
work after retirement
• Postretirement jobs typically pay less
Main worries as adults approach retirement:
• Drawing retirement income from savings
• Paying for health care expenses
Varying reasons for retirement; varying reasons for
continuing to work
Retirement
Older adults who best adjust to retirement:
• Healthy
• Have adequate income
• Active
• Better educated
• Have an extended network of friends and family
• Satisfied with life before retirement
Flexibility is a key factor
• Discover and pursue their own interests
• Planning and successfully carrying out the plan
 Balanced plan, including finances and other areas of life

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Week 9 Intelligence and Academic Achievement

  • 1. * Intelligence and Academic Achievement Week 9
  • 2. *The Concept of Intelligence What is intelligence? • Intelligence: the ability to solve problems and adapt and learn from experience * Can only be evaluated indirectly
  • 3. *Intelligence Tests: The Binet Tests 1 Binet stressed that the core of intelligence consists of complex cognitive processes: • Memory, imagery, comprehension, and judgment • Mental age (MA): an individual’s level of mental development relative to others * Compared to chronological age (CA), the age from birth * MA scores correspond to CA scores for an average child • Intelligence quotient (IQ): an individual’s MA divided by CA multiplied by 100
  • 4. *Intelligence Tests: The Binet Tests 2 Stanford-Binet 5: Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning, working memory
  • 5. *Intelligence Tests: The Wechsler Scales WAIS WISC WPPSI
  • 6. *The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests Intelligence tests predict school and job success • Moderately correlated with work performance Many other factors contribute to success in school and work • Motivation to succeed, physical and mental health, and social skills Intelligence tests should be used in conjunction with other information • Developmental history, medical background, school performance, social competency, family experiences, etc.
  • 7. *Theories of Multiple Intelligences 1 Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence • Intelligence comes in three forms: * Analytical intelligence: ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast * Creative intelligence: ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine * Practical intelligence: ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice
  • 8. *Theories of Multiple Intelligences 2 Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences Now, from Gardner himself:
  • 9. *Theories of Multiple Intelligences 3 Emotional intelligence similarly emphasizes interpersonal, intrapersonal, and practical aspects • Ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively, understand emotion, and manage emotions in oneself and others * Concept originally developed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer • Critics argue that emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence too far to be useful and has not been adequately assessed and researched
  • 10. *Theories of Multiple Intelligences 4 Do people have one or many intelligences? • Critics of multiple intelligences argue the research base to support them has not yet been developed; and Gardner’s classification in particular seems arbitrary • Many psychologists continue to support the concept of general intelligence • Some experts conclude that individuals also have specific intellectual abilities • Scores on tests of general intelligence are substantially correlated with school grades and achievement test performance
  • 11. *The Neuroscience of Intelligence Studies using MRI scans suggest a moderate correlation between brain size and intelligence Most prominent finding is that a distributed neural network involving the frontal and parietal lobes is related to higher intelligence Neurological speed may also play a role in intelligence
  • 12. *The Influence of Heredity and Environment 1
  • 13. *The Influence of Heredity and Environment 2 Variables that correlate with intelligence include how much parents communicate with their children in the first three years of life, and schooling Flynn effect refers to a worldwide increase in scores over a relatively short amount of time • 1930-present Environmental influences are complex • Growing up with all the “advantages” does not guarantee success, nor does being “disadvantaged” guarantee failure
  • 14. *Group Comparisons and Issues 1 Cross-cultural comparisons show that cultures vary in what it means to be intelligent Cultural bias is an issue in testing • Early intelligence tests favored people from urban environments, middle socioeconomic status, and non-Latino Whites • Non-native English speakers or nonstandard English speakers are at a disadvantage in understanding questions
  • 15. *Group Comparisons and Issues 2 One potential influence on test performance is stereotype threat: a fear that one’s behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group
  • 16. *Group Comparisons and Issues 3 Researchers have strived to develop culture-fair tests, designed to avoid cultural bias Most intelligence tests reflect what the dominant culture thinks is important • For example, the same words may have different meaning for different groups • Different attitudes, values, and motivation can affect performance
  • 19. *The Development of Intelligence Tests of infant intelligence are less verbal and contain elements related to perceptual-motor development and social interaction • Bayley Scales of Infant Development * Cognitive, language, motor, socioemotional, and adaptive skills • Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence * Unlike the Bayley scales, the Fagan test is correlated with measures of intelligence in older children
  • 22. *Stability and Change in Intelligence Through Adolescence Intelligence test scores can fluctuate dramatically across the childhood years Children are adaptive—their intelligence changes but remains connected with earlier points in development
  • 23. *Intelligence in Adulthood1 Crystallized intelligence: an individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills Fluid intelligence: the ability to reason abstractly Note that the data were collected in a cross-sectional manner • Cross-sectional: assess individuals of different ages at the same point in time • Longitudinal: study the same individuals over a period of time
  • 25.
  • 26. *Intelligence in Adulthood 2 Seattle Longitudinal Study
  • 27. *Intelligence in Adulthood 3 With cognitive mechanics, decline with aging is likely • “Hardware” of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological architecture of the brain • Speed and accuracy in sensory input, attention, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization Cognitive pragmatics may decline but can also improve in old age • Culture-based “software” of the mind • Reading and writing, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, self and life skills
  • 28. *Intellectual Disability Intellectual disability is a condition of limited mental ability in which individual: • Has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test • Has difficulty adapting to the demands of everyday life • First exhibits these characteristics by age 18 About 5 million Americans fit this definition of intellectual disability There are several ways to define degrees of intellectual disability
  • 29. Type of Intellectual Disability IQ Range Percentage of Individuals with an Intellectual Disability Mild 55 to 70 89% Moderate 40 to 54 6% Severe 25 to 39 4% Profound Below 25 1%
  • 30. Classification of Intellectual Disability Level of Support Needed Intermittent Supports are provided “as needed.” The individual may need episodic or short-term support during life-span transitions (such as job loss or acute medical crisis). Intermittent supports may be low or high intensity when provided. Limited Supports are intense and relatively consistent over time. They are time-limited but not intermittent, require fewer staff members, and cost less than more intense supports. These supports likely will be needed for adaptation to the changes involved in the school-to- adult period. Extensive Supports are characterized by regular involvement (for example, daily) in at least some setting (such as home or work) and are not time-limited (for example, extended home-living support). Pervasive Supports are constant, very intense, and are provided across settings. They may be of a life-sustaining nature. These supports typically involve more staff members and intrusiveness than the other support categories.
  • 31. *Intellectual Disability Organic intellectual disability: a genetic disorder or lower level of intelligence due to brain damage • Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, prenatal malformation, metabolic disorders, and diseases that affect the brain • Most have IQs between 0 and 50 Cultural-familial intellectual disability: cases with no evidence of organic brain damage • Emerge from below-average intellectual environments • Most have IQs between 55 and 70 • Disability is usually not noticeable in adulthood
  • 32. *Giftedness 1 Those who are gifted have above-average intelligence (IQ of 130 or higher) and/or a superior talent for something • Approximately 6% of U.S. students are classified as gifted A word of caution regarding representation • Baltimore Sun investigation in HS (watch the video link on Blackboard)
  • 33. *Creativity Creativity is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique, good solutions to problems Creativity requires divergent thinking, which produces many answers to the same question • Conventional intelligence tests measure convergent thinking, in which there is only one correct answer
  • 34. *Creativity Creative process has often been described as a five-step sequence: • 1. Preparation • 2. Incubation • 3. Insight • 4. Evaluation • 5. Elaboration
  • 35. *Creativity in Adulthood Creativity often peaks in adulthood • About 80% of individuals’ most important creative contributions are completed by age 50 • Creativity often peaks in the forties before declining • Decline is often not dramatic Age of decline varies with the domain involved • In philosophy and history, older adults continue to show as much creativity as when they were younger • In lyric poetry, abstract mathematics, and theoretical physics, the peak of creativity is often reached in the twenties or thirties
  • 36. Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning and Assessment
  • 37.
  • 39. Schools and Developmental Standards Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children and the uniqueness of each child • Emphasizes creating settings that reflects children’s interests and capabilities while encouraging active learning • Desired outcomes include critical thinking, cooperative work, problem solving, self-regulatory skills, and learning enjoyment • Individual programs vary; and mixed outcomes have been seen
  • 41. Schools and Developmental Standards There is no consensus about the curriculum for early childhood education programs Many high-quality early childhood education encompasses both traditional and constructivist approaches • Also focus on cognitive and socioemotional development
  • 42. Elementary and Junior High Schools Children experience new roles and obligations after beginning elementary school • Too often, early schooling proceeds on the basis of negative feedback, having an effect on self-esteem Transition to middle or junior high school can be stressful • Simultaneous individual, family, and school changes
  • 43. Elementary and Junior High Schools Critics argue middle schools should include activities that reflect a wide range of individual differences in biological and psychological development Carnegie Foundation (1989) conducted an in- depth evaluation of U.S. middle schools • Middle schools are massive and impersonal, using irrelevant curricula and lacking access to health care and counseling • Recommended a complete overhaul to smaller “communities” with lower student-to-counselor ratios, new curricula, and more in-school physical education
  • 44. High Schools To many, high schools exhibit similar problems • Critics stress that U.S. high schools foster passivity, and schools should create multiple pathways for identity achievement • Many students graduate high school with inadequate reading, writing, and mathematical skills  Enter college in need of remediation classes • High school dropouts do not have the skills needed to obtain decent jobs or be informed citizens • Transition to high school is often difficult; and for many, high school is more about navigating the social world than about getting an education
  • 45. High Schools U.S. high schools often offer a wide array of extracurricular activities, beyond academic courses Benefits of student participation in extracurricular activities: • Higher grades • Greater school engagement • Less likelihood of dropping out • Improved probability of going to college • Higher self-esteem • Lower rates of depression, delinquency, and substance abuse
  • 46. High Schools U.S. high school dropout rates have declined overall • Dropout rate for Latino adolescents remains high, although this too is declining • Lowest dropout rate is seen among Asian Americans • Males are more likely to drop out than females • Higher dropout rates are seen in low-income areas of inner cities  In some large cities, the dropout rate is as high as 50%
  • 47. College and Adult Education Transition from high school to college parallels earlier transitions Benefits of transition: • Movement to a larger, more impersonal school • Interaction with peers of more diverse backgrounds • Increased focus on achievement and assessment • Greater independence from parental monitoring • Challenged intellectually by academic work • More opportunities to explore lifestyles and values
  • 48. Daily Activity Self-Ratings and College Students’ Happiness
  • 49. College and Adult Education Adult education refers to all forms of schooling and learning in which adults participate • Literacy training, community development, university credit programs, on-the-job training, and continuing professional education  Offered by colleges, libraries, museum, government agencies, businesses, and churches • Large number of adults pursue education and advanced degrees on a part-time basis  Increased leisure time, the need to update information/skills, enjoyment of learning, keeping the mind active • Women represent the majority of adult learners
  • 50. Educating Children with Disabilities
  • 51. Educating Children with Disabilities Types of learning disabilities: • Dyslexia: severe impairment in the ability to read and spell • Dysgraphia: involves difficulty in handwriting • Dyscalculia: difficulty in math computation; also known as developmental arithmetic disorder Precise cause of disabilities has not been determined • Likely that they are due to problems integrating information from multiple brain regions or subtle difficulties in brain structures and functions Interventions often focus on reading ability
  • 52. Educating Children with Disabilities: ADHD Attention hyperactivity deficit disorder (ADHD) is a disability in which children consistently show one or more of the following characteristics:
  • 53. Educating Children with Disabilities: ADHD No definitive causes of ADHD have been found, though several have been proposed • Genetic inheritance • Brain damage • Cigarette and alcohol exposure during pregnancy • Higher levels of maternal stress • Low birth weight Number of differences found in brain scanning techniques
  • 54. Educating Children with Disabilities: Autism Spectrum Disorders
  • 55. Educating Children with Disabilities: Autism Spectrum Disorders Brain structure and neurotransmitter abnormalities may contribute to ASD • Genetic factors may be involved Boys are estimated to be five times more likely to develop ASDs Children benefit from a well-structured classroom, individualized instruction, and small-group instruction • Behavioral management techniques are sometimes effective in helping autistic children learn
  • 58. Achievement: Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation: doing something to obtain something else Intrinsic motivation: internal motivation to do something for its own sake Parental motivational practices are linked to children’s motivation Students’ internal motivation and intrinsic interest increases when they have opportunities to make choices and take responsibility for learning
  • 59. Achievement: Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation As students move from the early elementary school years to the high school years, intrinsic motivation tends to decline • Largest increase in extrinsic motivation occurs between the sixth and seventh grades • Students compare themselves more with other students because they are increasingly graded in terms of relative performance Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can operate simultaneously • Extrinsic motivation alone is not a good strategy
  • 61. Mastery Motivation and Mindset 1 Mastery orientation: task-oriented, concerned with learning strategies and the process of achievement rather than ability or outcome Helpless orientation: seeming trapped by the experience of difficulty, and attributing difficulty to lack of ability Mastery-oriented individuals often instruct themselves to pay attention, think carefully, and remember strategies • Feel challenged and excited by difficult tasks
  • 62. Mastery Motivation and Mindset 2 Performance orientation: focused on winning rather than on an achievement outcome • Happiness results from winning Mastery and performance goals are not mutually exclusive • Can be both mastery- and performance-oriented • Combination often benefits students’ success
  • 64. Mastery Motivation and Mindset 3 Mindset: the cognitive view that individuals develop for themselves • Fixed mindset: belief that qualities are carved in stone and cannot change • Growth mindset: belief that qualities can change and improve through effort • Influences whether individuals are optimistic or pessimistic; shapes their goals and how hard they will strive to reach their goals; and affects achievement and success in school and sports • Shaped by parents, teachers, and coaches
  • 65. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy: the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes Students with low self-efficacy avoid learning tasks, especially those that are challenging Those with high self-efficacy work eagerly at learning tasks Children’s and adolescents’ development is shaped by their parents’ self-efficacy
  • 66. Goal Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are specific, proximal, and challenging • Students can set both long-term (distal) and short-term (proximal) goals; short-term goals are steps toward long-term goals • Challenging goals are a commitment to self-improvement; but goals are best matched to one’s skill level Individuals should plan how to reach their goals and monitor how well they are sticking to their plan • Delaying gratification is important
  • 67. + Differences in Learners Motivation  Not enhanced by $$  Prioritized, meaningful material = motivation
  • 68. + Differences in Learners  Working Memory  Reasoning  Reading Comprehension  Control of attention
  • 69. + Differences in Learners Anxiety  Hurts working memory  Write about it!
  • 70. + Differences in Learners Expertise  Chase & Simon (1973) study of chess masters  Chunking
  • 71. Careers, Work, and Retirement Quality of schooling and achievement orientation provide the foundation for career success and the type of work pursued Children have idealistic fantasies of career choices • In the late teens and twenties, career decision making becomes more serious  Different career opportunities are explored • In college, the focus becomes choosing a major or specialization designed to lead to work in a specific field • By the early to mid-twenties, many individuals complete education or training and enter a full-time occupation
  • 72. Careers Career mystique: ingrained cultural beliefs that engaging in hard work for long hours through adulthood will automatically lead to status, security, and happiness • Idealized concept of a career path toward achieving the American dream • Never been a reality for many individuals, especially ethnic minorities, women, and poorly educated adults • Global outsourcing and economic changes have reduced job security for the middle class
  • 73. Work Increased number of adolescents work part-time while attending school • Estimated 80–90% of adolescents are employed at some point Large amounts of time in paid labor produces limited developmental benefits for youth • Associated with risky behavior and costs to physical health Work does benefit many youth in low-income, urban contexts by providing economic benefits and adult monitoring • May increase school engagement, decrease delinquency
  • 74. Work in Emerging Adulthood Along with the increasing number of adults in higher education, many leave home and enter careers at later ages • Changing economic conditions have made the job market more competitive  Increased demand for highly skilled workers Adults who don’t go to college may experience a lowered ability to get a good job • Job market for those with only a high school education has worsened
  • 75. Work in Adulthood Most individuals spend about one-third of their lives at work Work defines people in fundamental ways • Financial standing • Housing • Ways in which time is spent • Where people live • Friendships • Health • For some, identity and a structure and rhythm to life
  • 76. Work in Adulthood One trend in the U.S.: the disappearing long-term career for an increasing number of adults • Especially men in private-sector jobs • Dramatic increase in technology and companies’ use of cheaper labor abroad Work can be stressful to the point of health risks • Low salaries • Lack of advancement opportunities • Uncertain job expectations • Long hours • Policies out of step with today’s workforce
  • 77. Work in Adulthood Unemployment produces stress regardless of whether the job loss is temporary, cyclical, or permanent • Related to increased physical problems, mental problems, substance use and abuse, and marital difficulties Stress related to unemployment comes from the income loss and financial hardships, but also from decreased self-esteem • Those who cope well with unemployment have financial sources to rely on or family members’ support
  • 78. Work in Adulthood Dual-career couples may have special problems finding a work-family life balance Number of two-earner couples has increased considerably in recent decades As more U.S. women work, the division of responsibility for work and family has changed: • Husbands take more responsibility for maintaining the home • Women take more responsibility for breadwinning • Men show greater interest in families and parenting
  • 79. Work in Adulthood Gender inequalities still persist, even as couples in dual-earner families strive for gender equality • Career decisions are often made in favor of men’s greater earning power • Women spend more time in homemaking and caring for children
  • 80. Work in Late Adulthood Percentage of older U.S. adults still working or returning to work has been increasing since the 1990s • Working full-time longer to secure enough money to fund retirement Cognitive ability is one of the best predictors of job performance for older adults • Fewer absences, accidents, and increased job satisfaction compared to younger adults
  • 81. Retirement Option to retire is a twentieth-century phenomenon in the U.S., largely due to the Social Security System • On average, today’s workers will spend 18 years of their lives in retirement • Life paths to retirement in people’s sixties:  Do not retire; continue working  Retire from career work, then take up a different job  Retire from career work and do volunteer work  Retire from a postretirement job and go on to another  Move in and out of the workforce, with no retirement  In poor health, move to a disability status and into retirement  Layoff defined as “retirement”
  • 82. Retirement Approximately 7 million retired Americans return to work after retirement • Postretirement jobs typically pay less Main worries as adults approach retirement: • Drawing retirement income from savings • Paying for health care expenses Varying reasons for retirement; varying reasons for continuing to work
  • 83. Retirement Older adults who best adjust to retirement: • Healthy • Have adequate income • Active • Better educated • Have an extended network of friends and family • Satisfied with life before retirement Flexibility is a key factor • Discover and pursue their own interests • Planning and successfully carrying out the plan  Balanced plan, including finances and other areas of life

Editor's Notes

  1. Avoids language use
  2. Avoids language use
  3. Ethnic comparisons show achievement gaps In the United States, children from African American and Latino families score below children from non-Latino White families on standardized intelligence tests As social, economic, and educational opportunities have increased, that gap has reduced considerably Gap often narrows in college, where more similar environments are experienced than during elementary and high school years Underrepresentation of African Americans in STEM fields appear to reflect practitioners’ low expectations
  4. Figure 1: Cross-sectional and longitudinal estimates of age-related change in cognition.a | Cross-sectional data from the Seattle Longitudinal Study. Declines are evident in all domains, with the exception of preserved verbal and numeric ability. b | Seven-year longitudinal data from the same study. Declines are evident in all domains after age 55, with only processing speed displaying declines before 55. Reproduced, with permission, from Ref. 5 © (1996) Cambridge University Press.
  5. Most school systems use classifications in which IQ scores categorize intellectual disability as mild, moderate, severe, or profound. These categories are not perfect predictors of functioning.
  6. No Child Left Behind, started in 2002, demanded accountability from schools Spread of state-mandated tests Advocates argue for positive effects: Improved student performance More time teaching the subjects tested High expectations for students Identification of poorly performing schools, teachers, and administrators Improved confidence in public schools Criticisms of No Child Left Behind: Too narrow of a measure of student progress and competence Teachers “teach to the test”; students memorize rather than think critically Overlooks the needs of gifted students 2009 Common Core Standards Initiative aims to implement more rigorous state guidelines 2015 Every Student Succeeds (ESSA) is intended to replace No Child Left Behind in 2017–2018
  7. Constructivist approach is learner centered, emphasizing the individual’s active construction of knowledge and understanding Teacher provides support for students exploring their world and developing knowledge Emphasis on collaboration Direct instruction approach is structured and teacher centered Characterized by teacher instruction and control, high teacher expectations for student performance, maximum time spent on academic tasks, and efforts to keep negative affect to a minimum Goal is to maximize student learning time Critics argue this turns students into passive learners and does not push them to think in critical or creative ways Effective teachers use both direct and constructivist instruction
  8. Child-centered kindergarten emphasizes the education of the whole child Concerned with physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development Organized around child’s needs, interests, and learning styles; with an emphasis on the process of learning Montessori approach is a philosophy in which children are given freedom in choosing activities Teacher acts as a facilitator Encourages children’s self-regulation, problem solving, and time management
  9. Project Head Start, created in 1965, is currently one of the largest federally funded programs Designed to provide children from low-income families opportunities to acquire the skills and experience needed when starting school Early Head Start serves children from birth to 3 years Positive effects have been seen in the Head Start programs Quality of education varies across programs Another program with positive outcomes is the Perry Preschool program in Michigan
  10. Learning disability: a difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language May also involve difficulty in mathematics Not primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; intellectual disability; emotional disorders; or due to environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage About three times as many boys as girls are classified with learning disabilities Approximately 80% of children with learning disabilities have a reading problem
  11. Number of children diagnosed and treated for ADHD has increased substantially Diagnosed four to nine times more often in boys Some experts attribute the increase to heightened awareness; others suggest incorrect diagnoses
  12. Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs): developmental disorders characterized by social interaction problems, verbal and nonverbal communication problems, and repetitive behaviors Also called pervasive developmental disorders Lower level of working memory is most strongly associated Children with these disorders may also show abnormal responses to sensory experiences Intellectual disability is present in some cases; others show average or above-average intelligence Autistic disorder: a severe developmental ASD that includes deficiencies in social relationships; abnormalities in communication; and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior Has its onset in the first three years of life Asperger syndrome: a relatively mild ASD with relatively good verbal language skills, milder nonverbal language problems, and a restricted range of interests and relationships Often engage in obsessive, repetitive routines and preoccupations with a particular subject
  13. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) spells out mandates for children with disabilities: Individualized educational plan (IEP): a written statement that spells out a program specifically tailored for students with disability Least restrictive environment (LRE): a setting that is as similar as possible to one in which children without a disability are educated Inclusion: educating a child with special educational needs full-time in the regular classroom
  14. Low-income, ethnic minority children face more difficulties in school Schools in poor areas are underfunded, have low test scores and graduation rates, have more young, inexperienced teachers, and are largely segregated Rote learning is promoted More minorities are put in remedial and special education classes African American students are twice as likely as others to be suspended from school Asians and Whites are more likely to be in advanced classes
  15. Purpose: The purpose of this slide is to teach students about individual differences in learners, and how that affects learning.   The factors covered in the next few slides have been found to have an effect on learning. (Click): Motivation (Click): Not enhanced by money Motivation to learn is not greatly enhanced by money. For example: Did your parents ever try to motivate you by offering you a monetary reward? Did it work? Were you motivated? (Click): Prioritized, meaningful material = motivation But material that is prioritized by students will elicit greater effort.
  16. Purpose: The purpose of this slide is to teach students about individual differences in learners, and how that affects learning.   (Click): Working Memory Ask students: What is the difference between working memory and long-term memory? The module defines working memory as: “The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation.” Additionally, higher working memory capacity affects learning by predicting better… (Click): Reasoning Better reasoning… (Click): Reading Comprehension Better reading comprehension… (Click): Control of attention And better control of attention among learners.
  17. Purpose: The purpose of this slide is to teach students about individual differences in learners, and how that affects learning.   (Click): Anxiety (Click): Hurts working memory Anxiety hurts working memory, (Click): Write about it! Although anxiety can impair working memory, having students write about their learning-related anxiety (e.g. math anxiety) can reduce worry and improve performance.
  18. Purpose: The purpose of this slide is to teach students about individual differences in learners, and how that affects learning. (Click): Expertise Because the usual bottleneck to remembering information is in accessing rather than storing information, greater expertise in the domain of study enhances the ability to learn new information. (Click): Chase & Simon (1973) study of chess masters The Chase and Simon (1973) study of memory in expert chess players is an excellent illustration of expertise. Chess masters had far better memory for chess positions than chess novices, but only if the position of the chess pieces resembled a possible game of chess. (Click): Chunking Part of the reason for this is that experts can use their acquired knowledge to chunk information more efficiently. Instructor Note: Students will get the opportunity to practice chunking on the next two slides 