Druga część warsztatów z EKG prowadzonych przez studentów ze Studenckiego Koła Naukowego Internistyczno-Kardiologicznego w Olsztynie. Prezentacja odbyła się 03-11-2016. Kolejne części już wkrótce!
Trzecia część warsztatów z EKG prowadzonych przez studentów ze Studenckiego Koła Naukowego Internistyczno-Kardiologicznego w Olsztynie. Prezentacja odbyła się 22-11-2016. Kolejne części już wkrótce!
Pierwsza część Quizu EKG przeprowadzonego przez Studenckie Koło Naukowe Internistyczno-Kardiologiczne w Olsztynie. Prezentacja odbyła się 13-10-2016 i 03-11-2016. Kolejne części już wkrótce!
Pierwsza część warsztatów z EKG prowadzonych przez studentów ze Studenckiego Koła Naukowego Chorób Wewnętrznych w Olsztynie. Prezentacja odbyła się 13-10-2016. Kolejne części już wkrótce!
This document discusses the precordial chest leads of an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). It explains that the precordial leads (V1-V6) record the heart's electrical activity in the horizontal plane across the chest. Each chest lead is made positive while the whole body is considered negative. The positions of each precordial lead on the chest are described in detail. The document then explains that leads V1-V2 lie over the right ventricle, V3-V4 lie over the interventricular septum, and V5-V6 lie over the left ventricle. It concludes by summarizing the waves and intervals that are analyzed on an EKG, including the P wave
This document provides a history of the electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG) and describes how it is used to evaluate cardiac electrical activity and identify various cardiac conditions. Some key points:
- The EKG was developed in the late 19th/early 20th century, with scientists like Matteucci, Marey, and Einthoven contributing to its invention and clinical use.
- An EKG records the heart's electrical activity through electrodes on the skin and can be used to detect arrhythmias, ischemia, infarction, and other conditions.
- It analyzes the P wave, QRS complex, ST segment, and T wave to evaluate conduction and identify abnormalities.
Trzecia część warsztatów z EKG prowadzonych przez studentów ze Studenckiego Koła Naukowego Internistyczno-Kardiologicznego w Olsztynie. Prezentacja odbyła się 22-11-2016. Kolejne części już wkrótce!
Pierwsza część Quizu EKG przeprowadzonego przez Studenckie Koło Naukowe Internistyczno-Kardiologiczne w Olsztynie. Prezentacja odbyła się 13-10-2016 i 03-11-2016. Kolejne części już wkrótce!
Pierwsza część warsztatów z EKG prowadzonych przez studentów ze Studenckiego Koła Naukowego Chorób Wewnętrznych w Olsztynie. Prezentacja odbyła się 13-10-2016. Kolejne części już wkrótce!
This document discusses the precordial chest leads of an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). It explains that the precordial leads (V1-V6) record the heart's electrical activity in the horizontal plane across the chest. Each chest lead is made positive while the whole body is considered negative. The positions of each precordial lead on the chest are described in detail. The document then explains that leads V1-V2 lie over the right ventricle, V3-V4 lie over the interventricular septum, and V5-V6 lie over the left ventricle. It concludes by summarizing the waves and intervals that are analyzed on an EKG, including the P wave
This document provides a history of the electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG) and describes how it is used to evaluate cardiac electrical activity and identify various cardiac conditions. Some key points:
- The EKG was developed in the late 19th/early 20th century, with scientists like Matteucci, Marey, and Einthoven contributing to its invention and clinical use.
- An EKG records the heart's electrical activity through electrodes on the skin and can be used to detect arrhythmias, ischemia, infarction, and other conditions.
- It analyzes the P wave, QRS complex, ST segment, and T wave to evaluate conduction and identify abnormalities.
Wide complex Tachycardia by Dr. Vaibhav Yawalkarvaibhavyawalkar
This document discusses wide QRS complex tachycardia, including definitions, causes, and approaches to distinguishing supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) from ventricular tachycardia (VT). Key points include: SVT accounts for 20% of cases while VT accounts for 80%; maneuvers like carotid sinus pressure may help identify SVT that terminates in response; ECG criteria like axis, concordance, AV dissociation, and QRS morphology provide clues but are imperfect; treatment should initially treat any wide QRS tachycardia as VT due to risk of incorrectly treating SVT as VT. Distinguishing the arrhythmia is important but difficult, so the document reviews multiple diagnostic algorithms and criteria to
O documento discute diferentes tipos de bloqueios cardíacos, incluindo: 1) Bloqueio atrioventricular de 1o, 2o e 3o grau; 2) Bloqueios de ramos direito e esquerdo. Fornece detalhes sobre sintomas e causas de cada bloqueio. Marca-passos são usados para tratar bloqueios completos ou quando o paciente apresenta sintomas.
1. This document provides an overview of a training course on complex supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) differentiation. It discusses various SVT etiologies and electrocardiogram patterns.
2. Mechanisms of SVT discussed include atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT), atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia (AVRT), and atrial tachycardia (AT). The document also reviews electrophysiology study findings that help differentiate the mechanisms.
3. Case examples are presented to demonstrate electrophysiology study techniques for SVT diagnosis and ablation, including ventricular overdrive pacing, ventricular extrastimuli, and induction protocols.
1) Atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is the most common type of supraventricular tachycardia. It involves a reentrant circuit utilizing the fast and slow pathways within the AV node.
2) There are typical and atypical forms of AVNRT depending on the direction of conduction through the fast and slow pathways. In typical AVNRT, antegrade conduction is down the slow pathway and retrograde up the fast pathway. In atypical AVNRT the directions are reversed.
3) Ablation of the slow pathway is an effective treatment for AVNRT and can be performed without damaging the AV node since only a portion of the circuit
The ECG of children is different from adults due to developmental changes. As children age, their heart rate decreases while measurements like P-wave duration and QRS duration increase. In newborns, the right ventricle dominates but over the first year the left ventricle becomes the dominant chamber. The T-wave also changes significantly in infants in the first week of life as right ventricular pressure changes. Premature infants have shorter ECG intervals and less right ventricular dominance compared to full-term infants.
This document discusses right bundle branch block (RBBB). It defines RBBB and its diagnostic criteria. Potential causes of RBBB are listed, including pulmonary embolism and ischemic heart disease. The document notes that RBBB is generally not clinically significant in asymptomatic patients and has little impact on prognosis, though it can indicate issues in patients with symptoms like chest pain or dyspnea. Large studies have found no association between RBBB and increased mortality in otherwise healthy individuals.
Electrocardiographic manifestation of "supernormal" conduction is defined as conduction that is more rapid than expected or presence of conduction when block is anticipated. It is not supernormal in the sense or being more rapid than normal. Therefore, the term relative supernormality or "supernormality" is more appropriate. The mechanism of "supernormal" conduction is conduction during a period of supernormal excitability and conduction associated with altered membrane potential. Some of the more common phenomena that are not dependent on conduction during the supernormal period but manifest better than expected conduction, thus simulating "supernormal" conduction, include dual AV nodal conduction, the "gap" phenomenon, "peeling back" of the refractory period, summation of subthreshold responses, diastolic phase 4 depolarization, and phasic autonomic influences.
This document outlines the key components of a basic electrophysiology (EP) study, including measuring basic intervals like PA, AH, and HV; testing sinus node function with measurements like sinus node recovery time; performing atrial and ventricular extra-stimulus testing to determine refractory periods; and conducting a minimum protocol involving basic interval measurements, sinus node assessment, ventricular and atrial extra-stimulus testing, and incremental pacing. The purpose is to provide diagnostic information about cardiac conduction and rhythm.
This document provides an overview of ECG interpretation. It discusses cardiac electrophysiology, including the cardiac action potential and refractory periods. It describes the normal P wave, PR interval, QRS complex, and T wave. Abnormal P waves, prolonged or shortened PR intervals, wide QRS complexes, and high R wave amplitudes are addressed. A systematic approach to ECG interpretation involving assessment of intervals, amplitudes, and morphologies is recommended.
The document provides an overview of 12 lead EKG interpretation in 17 steps. It discusses evaluating the rate, rhythm, axis deviation, and signs of hypertrophy or infarction. Common rhythms reviewed include normal sinus rhythm, various arrhythmias, conduction blocks, and tachycardias. The document emphasizes interpreting location of infarction and enlargement based on EKG findings and provides examples of practice EKG interpretations.
A 22-year-old male presented with acute onset breathlessness, palpitations, and profuse sweating. His ECG showed tachycardia at a rate of 200 bpm with a right bundle branch block pattern. This wide complex tachycardia was determined to be ventricular tachycardia based on Brugada criteria and AVR criteria, including the absence of an RS complex in leads V1-V6, a QRS duration greater than 100 ms, and a ventricular activation-velocity ratio greater than 1. The patient was diagnosed with ventricular tachycardia based on the ECG findings and treated accordingly.
This document provides an overview of the approach to evaluating and diagnosing wide complex tachycardias. It begins with definitions of terms like wide complex tachycardia, ventricular tachycardia, and supraventricular tachycardia. It then discusses the importance of making an accurate diagnosis to avoid inappropriate treatment. Various ECG criteria are presented to help distinguish ventricular from supraventricular rhythms based on features like AV dissociation, QRS morphology, axis, and precordial patterns. Specific criteria for right bundle branch block and left bundle branch block morphologies are also outlined. The document emphasizes taking a stepwise approach and considering clinical history in narrowing the differential diagnosis of wide complex tachycardias.
Conduction system pacing as resynchronizationSergio Pinski
This document discusses various cardiac resynchronization therapies including biventricular pacing, His bundle pacing, and left bundle branch pacing. It notes that while biventricular pacing achieves imperfect resynchronization in about 20-30% of patients, His bundle pacing has been shown to fully correct left bundle branch block in some cases. Left bundle branch pacing is also discussed as an emerging therapy. The document reviews several studies comparing different resynchronization approaches and outlines criteria for assessing left bundle branch capture during pacing. It concludes by proposing a framework for selecting among resynchronization therapies based on the underlying conduction abnormality.
This document discusses electrocardiogram (ECG) changes associated with atrial and ventricular enlargement. It notes that enlargement can involve dilation or hypertrophy of the atria or ventricles. Atrial enlargement is characterized by changes to the P wave duration and morphology on a 12-lead ECG. Right atrial enlargement can directly increase the height of the P wave or indirectly cause QRS abnormalities through rotational effects. Left atrial enlargement directly widens the P wave. Ventricular enlargement is characterized by changes to the QRS complex on ECG.
This document provides a comprehensive overview of EKG interpretation. It defines the various EKG waves, intervals, segments and complexes. It describes normal values as well as abnormalities related to conditions like myocardial infarction, hypertrophy, conduction blocks, electrolyte imbalances, hypothermia and more. Causes of variations in waves, intervals and complexes are discussed in detail. Commonly seen arrhythmias and their mechanisms are also explained.
1. The document describes 4 ECG findings from patients presenting with various symptoms. The first case shows ventricular bigeminy in a patient with chest pain. The second case shows sinus tachycardia with S1Q3T3 pattern in a bedridden patient with breathlessness, indicating pulmonary embolism. The third case shows ventricular tachycardia in a patient recently diagnosed with myocardial infarction. The fourth case provides the Brugada criteria used to diagnose Brugada syndrome.
Wide complex Tachycardia by Dr. Vaibhav Yawalkarvaibhavyawalkar
This document discusses wide QRS complex tachycardia, including definitions, causes, and approaches to distinguishing supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) from ventricular tachycardia (VT). Key points include: SVT accounts for 20% of cases while VT accounts for 80%; maneuvers like carotid sinus pressure may help identify SVT that terminates in response; ECG criteria like axis, concordance, AV dissociation, and QRS morphology provide clues but are imperfect; treatment should initially treat any wide QRS tachycardia as VT due to risk of incorrectly treating SVT as VT. Distinguishing the arrhythmia is important but difficult, so the document reviews multiple diagnostic algorithms and criteria to
O documento discute diferentes tipos de bloqueios cardíacos, incluindo: 1) Bloqueio atrioventricular de 1o, 2o e 3o grau; 2) Bloqueios de ramos direito e esquerdo. Fornece detalhes sobre sintomas e causas de cada bloqueio. Marca-passos são usados para tratar bloqueios completos ou quando o paciente apresenta sintomas.
1. This document provides an overview of a training course on complex supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) differentiation. It discusses various SVT etiologies and electrocardiogram patterns.
2. Mechanisms of SVT discussed include atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT), atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia (AVRT), and atrial tachycardia (AT). The document also reviews electrophysiology study findings that help differentiate the mechanisms.
3. Case examples are presented to demonstrate electrophysiology study techniques for SVT diagnosis and ablation, including ventricular overdrive pacing, ventricular extrastimuli, and induction protocols.
1) Atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is the most common type of supraventricular tachycardia. It involves a reentrant circuit utilizing the fast and slow pathways within the AV node.
2) There are typical and atypical forms of AVNRT depending on the direction of conduction through the fast and slow pathways. In typical AVNRT, antegrade conduction is down the slow pathway and retrograde up the fast pathway. In atypical AVNRT the directions are reversed.
3) Ablation of the slow pathway is an effective treatment for AVNRT and can be performed without damaging the AV node since only a portion of the circuit
The ECG of children is different from adults due to developmental changes. As children age, their heart rate decreases while measurements like P-wave duration and QRS duration increase. In newborns, the right ventricle dominates but over the first year the left ventricle becomes the dominant chamber. The T-wave also changes significantly in infants in the first week of life as right ventricular pressure changes. Premature infants have shorter ECG intervals and less right ventricular dominance compared to full-term infants.
This document discusses right bundle branch block (RBBB). It defines RBBB and its diagnostic criteria. Potential causes of RBBB are listed, including pulmonary embolism and ischemic heart disease. The document notes that RBBB is generally not clinically significant in asymptomatic patients and has little impact on prognosis, though it can indicate issues in patients with symptoms like chest pain or dyspnea. Large studies have found no association between RBBB and increased mortality in otherwise healthy individuals.
Electrocardiographic manifestation of "supernormal" conduction is defined as conduction that is more rapid than expected or presence of conduction when block is anticipated. It is not supernormal in the sense or being more rapid than normal. Therefore, the term relative supernormality or "supernormality" is more appropriate. The mechanism of "supernormal" conduction is conduction during a period of supernormal excitability and conduction associated with altered membrane potential. Some of the more common phenomena that are not dependent on conduction during the supernormal period but manifest better than expected conduction, thus simulating "supernormal" conduction, include dual AV nodal conduction, the "gap" phenomenon, "peeling back" of the refractory period, summation of subthreshold responses, diastolic phase 4 depolarization, and phasic autonomic influences.
This document outlines the key components of a basic electrophysiology (EP) study, including measuring basic intervals like PA, AH, and HV; testing sinus node function with measurements like sinus node recovery time; performing atrial and ventricular extra-stimulus testing to determine refractory periods; and conducting a minimum protocol involving basic interval measurements, sinus node assessment, ventricular and atrial extra-stimulus testing, and incremental pacing. The purpose is to provide diagnostic information about cardiac conduction and rhythm.
This document provides an overview of ECG interpretation. It discusses cardiac electrophysiology, including the cardiac action potential and refractory periods. It describes the normal P wave, PR interval, QRS complex, and T wave. Abnormal P waves, prolonged or shortened PR intervals, wide QRS complexes, and high R wave amplitudes are addressed. A systematic approach to ECG interpretation involving assessment of intervals, amplitudes, and morphologies is recommended.
The document provides an overview of 12 lead EKG interpretation in 17 steps. It discusses evaluating the rate, rhythm, axis deviation, and signs of hypertrophy or infarction. Common rhythms reviewed include normal sinus rhythm, various arrhythmias, conduction blocks, and tachycardias. The document emphasizes interpreting location of infarction and enlargement based on EKG findings and provides examples of practice EKG interpretations.
A 22-year-old male presented with acute onset breathlessness, palpitations, and profuse sweating. His ECG showed tachycardia at a rate of 200 bpm with a right bundle branch block pattern. This wide complex tachycardia was determined to be ventricular tachycardia based on Brugada criteria and AVR criteria, including the absence of an RS complex in leads V1-V6, a QRS duration greater than 100 ms, and a ventricular activation-velocity ratio greater than 1. The patient was diagnosed with ventricular tachycardia based on the ECG findings and treated accordingly.
This document provides an overview of the approach to evaluating and diagnosing wide complex tachycardias. It begins with definitions of terms like wide complex tachycardia, ventricular tachycardia, and supraventricular tachycardia. It then discusses the importance of making an accurate diagnosis to avoid inappropriate treatment. Various ECG criteria are presented to help distinguish ventricular from supraventricular rhythms based on features like AV dissociation, QRS morphology, axis, and precordial patterns. Specific criteria for right bundle branch block and left bundle branch block morphologies are also outlined. The document emphasizes taking a stepwise approach and considering clinical history in narrowing the differential diagnosis of wide complex tachycardias.
Conduction system pacing as resynchronizationSergio Pinski
This document discusses various cardiac resynchronization therapies including biventricular pacing, His bundle pacing, and left bundle branch pacing. It notes that while biventricular pacing achieves imperfect resynchronization in about 20-30% of patients, His bundle pacing has been shown to fully correct left bundle branch block in some cases. Left bundle branch pacing is also discussed as an emerging therapy. The document reviews several studies comparing different resynchronization approaches and outlines criteria for assessing left bundle branch capture during pacing. It concludes by proposing a framework for selecting among resynchronization therapies based on the underlying conduction abnormality.
This document discusses electrocardiogram (ECG) changes associated with atrial and ventricular enlargement. It notes that enlargement can involve dilation or hypertrophy of the atria or ventricles. Atrial enlargement is characterized by changes to the P wave duration and morphology on a 12-lead ECG. Right atrial enlargement can directly increase the height of the P wave or indirectly cause QRS abnormalities through rotational effects. Left atrial enlargement directly widens the P wave. Ventricular enlargement is characterized by changes to the QRS complex on ECG.
This document provides a comprehensive overview of EKG interpretation. It defines the various EKG waves, intervals, segments and complexes. It describes normal values as well as abnormalities related to conditions like myocardial infarction, hypertrophy, conduction blocks, electrolyte imbalances, hypothermia and more. Causes of variations in waves, intervals and complexes are discussed in detail. Commonly seen arrhythmias and their mechanisms are also explained.
1. The document describes 4 ECG findings from patients presenting with various symptoms. The first case shows ventricular bigeminy in a patient with chest pain. The second case shows sinus tachycardia with S1Q3T3 pattern in a bedridden patient with breathlessness, indicating pulmonary embolism. The third case shows ventricular tachycardia in a patient recently diagnosed with myocardial infarction. The fourth case provides the Brugada criteria used to diagnose Brugada syndrome.
3. Zasady opisu
elektrokardio
gramu
• informacje dotyczące wieku, płci, stosowanych
leków oraz rozpoznania klinicznego
• wskazane jest porównanie z poprzednim
zapisem EKG
• w niektórych sytuacjach klinicznych w celu
ustalenia ostatecznego rozpoznania niezbędna
jest możliwość śledzenia ewolucji zmian w
kolejnych zapisach EKG
• przed rozpoczęciem opisu należy sprawdzić
cechę i szybkość przesuwu oraz czy jakość
techniczna elektrokardiogramu jest
zadowalająca, oraz czy wszystkie
odprowadzenia zostały podłączone prawidłowo
4. dekalog opisu
EKG
1. Opis rytmu prowadzącego (rytmów) serca widocznych
w zapisie oraz ich częstotliwości
2. Opis osi elektrycznej serca (jeżeli jest to możliwe)
3. Ocena załamków P pod względem morfologicznym
oraz ewentualnego występowania zaburzeń
przewodzenia zatokowo-przedsionkowego
4. Ocena czasu trwania odstępu PQ, związku załamków P
z zespołami QRS oraz ewentualnych zaburzeń
przewodzenia przedsionkowo-komorowego
5. Ocena czasu trwania zespołów QRS i ewentualnych
zaburzeń przewodzenia śródkomorowego
5. dekalog opisu
EKG
6. Ocena amplitudy załamków zespołów QRS pod
kątem występowania przerostu komór
7. Ocena morfologii zespołów QRS pod kątem
występowania patologicznych załamków Q lub
redukcji załamków R
8. Ocena odcinka ST zwłaszcza pod kątem
występowania zmian typu uniesienia, obniżenia,
ocena załamka T oraz czasu trwania odstępu QTc
9. Ocena występujących arytmii
10. U pacjentów z wszczepionym rozrusznikiem/ICD
opisujemy jego funkcjonowanie
6.
7. Oś elektryczna
• Tzw. „manualne” wyznaczanie osi ma swoje
granice dokładności i nie można w takim
przypadku określać osi np. jako –29 stopni czy –
31 stopni.
• Najczęściej manualne określanie osi wynika z
oceny konfiguracji zespołów QRS w
odprowadzeniach I i aVF, czasem również w II
(aby rozpoznać odchylenie osi elektrycznej w
lewo)
8.
9.
10. Normogram
• Oś elektryczna zespołów
QRS w zakresie od +90 do
–30 stopni.
• Oś pośrednia – oś
prawidłowa jest najczęściej
występującą osią
elektryczną u dorosłych i
sama w sobie nie jest
związana z istotnymi
patologiami w zapisie EKG.
I aVF
11. Prawogram
• Oś zespołów QRS w zakresie +91 do +180 stopni.
• Inne kryteria stosowane w literaturze — według najnowszych
zaleceń towarzystw amerykańskich odchylenie osi w prawo dzieli
się na umiarkowane (od +90 do +120 stopni) i istotne (powyżej
+120 stopni). Taką dokładność podziału osi można osiągnąć tylko
poprzez pomiar automatyczny.
• Odchylenie osi w prawo jest u dorosłych w większości przypadków
zjawiskiem patologicznym. Rzadko występuje jako wariant normy.
• Najczęstsze przyczyny odchylenia osi w prawo:
• zaburzenia przewodzenia śródkomorowego,
• przerost prawej komory,
• preekscytacja,
• przebyty zawał ściany bocznej,
• zator płucny.
II
aVF
12. Lewogram
• Oś elektryczna zespołów QRS w zakresie –31 do –90 stopni.
• Według najnowszych zaleceń towarzystw amerykańskich
odchylenie osi w lewo dzieli się na umiarkowane (od –30 do
–45 stopni) i istotne (od –45 do –90 stopni).
• Ma to znaczenie dla rozpoznawania bloku przedniej wiązki.
• Odchylenie osi w lewo jest zjawiskiem patologicznym i wiąże
się z takimi rozpoznaniami jak:
• blok przedniej wiązki,
• preekscytacja,
• zawał ściany dolnej,
• przerost lewej komory.
I I
aVF
13. Oś nieokreślona
• Oś elektryczna zespołów QRS w
zakresie +181 do –91 stopni lub
inaczej prezentowane jako od –91
do –179 stopni (górny lewy
kwadrant osi elektrycznej serca).
• Odchylenie osi w kierunku
nieokreślonym jest zjawiskiem
patologicznym i rzadkim.
• Wiąże się z takimi rozpoznaniami,
jak:
• nieokreślone zaburzenia
przewodzenia śródkomorowego
• przerost prawej komory;
• często występuje u pacjentów z
wrodzonymi wadami serca.
I aVF
14.
15.
16. Rytm
zatokowy i
jego
zaburzenia
• Rytm załamków P pochodzenia zatokowego:
• załamek P dodatni w odprowadzeniu I, II, aVF, ujemny w aVR;
• dopuszczalna zmienność kształtu związana z oddychaniem;
• częstotliwość rytmu 60–100/min.
• W badaniach EKG metodą Holtera
trójodprowadzeniowych, w których nie są opisane
odprowadzenia, obecność dodatnich załamków P
wskazuje w większości przypadków, że rytm jest
pochodzenia zatokowego.
17.
18. Tachykardia
zatokowa
• Rytm zatokowy o częstotliwości > 100/min.
• W badaniach EKG metodą Holtera, podczas których pacjent
może wykonywać wysiłek fizyczny nawet o znacznym
nasileniu, częstotliwość rytmu zatokowego może dochodzić
nawet do 150/min i więcej. Wymaga to weryfikacji z
dzienniczkiem aktywności pacjenta.
• W spoczynkowym EKG częstotliwość > 100/min występuje
rzadko i nakazuje kliniczną weryfikacje przyczyny
przyspieszenia rytmu:
• nadczynność tarczycy,
• niedokrwistość,
• stany zapalne,
• nadpobudliwość emocjonalna,
• niewydolność serca.
19.
20. Bradykardia
zatokowa
• Rytm zatokowy o częstotliwości < 60/min.
• W zapisach metodą Holtera zwolnienia rytmu w
godzinach spoczynku do wartości 40/min są
zjawiskiem prawidłowym.
• Różnicowanie z blokiem zatokowo-przedsionkowym
2:1. Nagłe dwukrotne zwolnienie rytmu zatokowego
przemawia za blokiem zatokowo-przedsionkowym 2:1.