This document discusses vitamins, coenzymes, and their roles and importance. It defines vitamins as organic compounds needed for normal metabolic processes and growth. Vitamins cannot be produced by the body and must be obtained through diet. The document then discusses various B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, cobalamin) and their functions, sources, and deficiency diseases. It also covers fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, K and water-soluble vitamin C, describing their structures, roles, sources, and what deficiencies cause. Finally, it provides an overview of coenzymes

1. Vitamins & coenzymes,
Role of minerals and water
-by K. Neha

2. Definition
• The term vitamin is derived from the word vitamine, which was coined
in 1912 by Polish biochemist Casimir Funk.
• The organic compounds needed for the function of normal metabolic
process and for the growth and health of human beings and animals.
These compounds, though required in very small amounts, are very
vital to the life process are termed as Vitamins.
• Vitamins may be defined as a group of biomolecules (except fats,
carbohydrates and proteins) most of which cannot be produced by the
body and must be supplied in small amounts in diet to perform the
specific biological function for the life, growth and health of humans
beings and animal organisms. Vitamins also assist in the formation of
hormones, blood vessels, nervous system chemicals and genetic
materials.
• Example: Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Vitamin B etc.

3. Importance of Vitamins
• Vitamins plays an important role in keeping good health of human beings.
But vitamins neither supply energy nor help in building tissue of the cell
but their deficiency in the body can cause serious diseases.
• As we know that vitamins cannot be synthesized by our body, therefore, it
must be supplied through food. Plants can synthesize all vitamins but
animals can synthesize very few vitamins. Some vitamins are present in
the nature also, like vitamin D which is either supplied by food or may be
produced in the skin by the irradiation of ergosterol with ultraviolet light.
• Human body can also synthesize some vitamin A from carotenes, some
components of vitamin B complex and vitamin K are synthesized by
microorganisms present in the intestinal tract.

4. Sources of Vitamins
• The main sources of vitamins are our food which consists of milk,
butter, green vegetables, meat, eggs etc. Vitamins are also
synthesized in the laboratory and are available in the form of tablets,
capsules, which can be taken orally or as with injection as prescribed
in the case of vitamin deficiency.
• Vitamins are of different chemical nature. These are alcohols,
aldehydes, organic acids, their derivatives and nucleotide derivatives.
• Lack of particular vitamin cause a specific deficiency disease.
Multiple deficiencies caused by lack of more than one vitamin are
called Avitaminoses. It is quite common in human beings.

5. Classification of Vitamins
• Vitamins are complex organic molecules. There are about 25 vitamins
known till today. They are broadly classified into the following two
categories: Water soluble and Fat Soluble.
• Water Soluble Vitamins: These vitamins are water soluble. These vitamins
must be supplied regularly in diet because they are regularly excreted in
urine and cannot be stored in our body. Most of these vitamins act as
coenzymes.
• Fat Soluble Vitamins: These vitamins are the oily substance and not readily
soluble in water, however they are soluble in fat. Excess intake of these
vitamins is harmful for health and may cause hypervitaminoses.

6. Vitamin B1
• Its chemical name is Thiamine, and commonly called
as Aneurin or Antineuritic Vitamin. It is a colourless and crystalline
substance.
• Thiamine contains a pyrimidine ring and a thiazole ring held by a methylene
bridge.
• The alcohol (OH) group of thiamine is esterfied with phosphate (2 moles) to
form the coenzyme, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP or cocarboxylase). The
pyrophosphate moiety is donated by ATP and the reaction is catalysed by the
enzyme thiamine pyrophosphate transferase.
• Characteristics: It is insoluble in oils and fats, and can be destroyed by heat
above 313 K.
• Source: It is found in pulses, nut, whole cereals, egg yolk, milk, green
vegetables and in fruits.
• Deficiency Diseases: Their deficiencies cause Beriberi
disease, in which legs get paralysed and cause loss
of appetite.

7. Vitamin B2
• Its chemical name is Riboflavin or Lactoflavin.
• It is a component of the flavincoenzymes, FAD and FMN (ATP-dependent
reaction).
• It is composed of an isoalloxazanering system linked to ribitol. Riboflavin
contains 6,7-dimethyl isoalloxazine (a heterocyclic 3 ring structure)
attached to D-ribitol by a nitrogen atom. Ribitol is an open chain form of
sugar ribose with the aldehyde group (CHO) reduced to alcohol (CH2OH).
• It is mainly used in energy metabolism of sugars and lipids.
• Characteristics: It is sensitive to light but stable to heat. It is essential for
growth and health of animals.
• Sources: It is found in milk, yeast, green
vegetables, meat, liver, kidney etc.
• Deficiency Diseases: Its deficiency retards
growth, and cause general inflammation
of tongue, dermatitis and cheilosis.

8. Vitamin B3
• Also known as NIACIN OR NICOTINIC ACID. Niacin is a pyridine derivative.
Structurally, it is pyridine 3-carboxylic acid.
• Niacin can be synthesized from tryptophan.
• Niacin contains a substituted pyridine ring and when NAD+ activated
forms NAD+ and its phosphorylated derivative NADP+, which are
coenzymes of many dehydrogenases.
• Characteristics: It lower cholesterol, boost brain functions.
• Sources: It is found in Meat, whole grain,
cereals, beans.
• Deficiency Diseases: Pellagra, dermatitis.

9. Vitamin B5
• Also called coenzyme, pantothenic acid is a vitamin that forms an
essential part of acyl groups in general, including the acetyl group derived
from pyruvate.
• The coenzyme is derived metabolically from ATP, the vitamin pantothenic
acid and β-mercaptoethylamine.
• Characteristics: It helps in breakdown of fats and carbohydrates.
• Sources: It is found in Whole grain cereals and legumes.
• Deficiency Diseases: Upper respiratory infections, insomnia.

10. Vitamin B6
• Its chemical name is as Adermin or Pyridoxine. In fact it is a mixture of
pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. Pyridoxal phosphate participates
in transaminations, decarboxylations, racemizations and numerous
modification of amino acid sequence side chains.
• Vitamin B6 compounds are pyridine derivatives. They differ from each
other in the structure of a functional group attached to 4th carbon in the
pyridine ring.
• Characteristics: It is also insoluble in oil and fats.
• Source: It is found in rice bran, yeast, molasses, meat, fish etc.
• Deficiency Disease: It causes specific dermatitis in rats, pellagra and
anaemia in human beings, affects central nervous system, causes general
weakness, convulsions, weakness, nervousness, insomnia and irritability.

11. Vitamin B7
• It is known as biotin. Also known as Vitamin H. It is a vitamin and a
coenzyme commonly associated with enzyme performing carboxylation
reactions
• Biotin is also known as “anti-egg white injury factor” or as H-factor.
• Characteristics: Member of B-complex vitamin family.
• Sources: It is found in liver, yeast, kidney and milk, peanuts, egg yolks,
cereals.
• Deficiency Diseases: Biotinidase deficiency, Dermatitis, loss of hair and
paralysis.

12. Vitamin B9
• Also known as Folic acid.
• The active form acid is tetrahydrofolate(THF).
• Coenzymes derived from the vitamin folic acid participates in the
generation and utilization of single – carbon functional groups, methyl,
methylene and formyl.
• Characteristics:
• Sources: Leafy green vegetables, liver.
• Deficiency diseases: folate deficiency

13. Vitamin B12
• Its chemical name is as cyanocobalamin. It contains cobalt.
• The metal cobalt in vitamin B12 is coordinated with a tetrapyrole ring
system, called a corin ring, which is similar to the porphyrin ring of heme
compounds. B12 requiring reactions involve methyl group transfer and
adenosylcobalamin-dependent isomerizations.
• Characteristics: It is insoluble in oils and fat.
• Source: It is found in milk, eggs and liver of ox, sheep, pig etc.
• Deficiency Disease: It causes pernicious anaemia, inflammation of tongue
and mouth.

14. Vitamin C
• Its chemical name is Ascorbic acid and commonly called as Antiscorbutic
vitamin. It is essential for the hydroxylation of proline and lysine in the
formation of collagen.
• Characteristics: It is destroyed by cooking and prolonged exposure to air.
To avoid the loss, vegetables riches in vitamin C must be cooked in closed
pan and pressure cooker. Vitamin c increases resistance of the body
towards diseases, maintains healthy skin and helps cuts and abrasion to
heal properly.
• Source: It is found in citrus fruits, lemons, leafy vegetables, chillies,
sprouted pulses and germinated grains.
• Deficiency Disease: It causes scurvy, pyorrhoea.

15. Vitamins (Name) Rich food source Functions
Deficiency
Diseases
B1 (Thiamine) Pork, cereals, nuts, seeds,
yeast, whole grain
Essential in converting glucose to energy,
Important to nerve function
Beri-beri (weakness of
limb muscles)
B2 (Riboflavin) Milk, milk products, leafy
vegetables, eggs
Involved in the formation of RBC,
maintenance of body tissue particularly
skin and eyes
Essential for metabolizing carbohydrates,
fats and lipids.
Cracked skin, blurred
vision
B3 (Niacin) Meat, whole grain, cereals,
beans
Important for nervous system, digestive
system and skin health
Pellagra (severe skin
problem, diarrhoea,
dementia)
B5(Pentothenic Acid) Whole grain cereals and
legumes
Part for an enzyme needed for energy
metabolism
Pellagra, dermatitis,
diarrhoea
B6(Pyridoxine) Meat, fish, egg, vegetables Used to build RBC and maintain nerve
tissue, Necessary for immune system
functioning
Skin problem, nerve
disorder
B9 (Folic Acid) Leafy green vegetables,
liver,
Necessary to build nucleic acid, which are
essential for making new cells especially
RBC
Anaemia
B12
(Cyanocobalamine)
Liver, milk, fish, meat Help build and maintain protective nerve
sheath
Needed for RNA and DNA synthesis.
Pernicious anaemia,
nerve disorder
C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus fruits, tomatoes,
leafy vegetables
Protect cellular function
Important for immune system
Scurvy (bleeding of
gums, teeth falling)

16. Vitamin A
• Its chemical name is Retinol and also
called as Bright Eye Vitamin. Carotenoids
are precursors of vitamin A. It is a pale
yellow primary alcohol derived from
carotene. It also presents in Retinal
(aldehyde) and Retinoic acid ( acidic)
form.
• It is a primary alcohol containing β-
ionone ring. The side chain has two
isoprenoid units, four double bonds and
• one hydroxyl group.
• Characteristics: It is stable to heat. It
promotes growth and vision in animals
and increase resistance to diseases.
• Sources: It is present in milk, butter,
eggs, fish liver oil, rice polishing, green
vegetables etc.
• Deficiency Disease: Its deficiency causes
Xerophthalamia, night blindness and
xerosis.

17. Vitamin D
• Its chemical name is ergocalciferol and commonly
called as Antirachitc Vitamin or Sunshine Vitamin.
• This comprises a group of fat soluble sterol founds
naturally in few foods. The two major
physiolgically relevant forms of vitamin D are D2
(ergocalciferol) and D3 (cholecalciferol).
• Characteristics: It is also stable to heat and
resistant to oxidation. It controls calcium and
phosphorus metabolism.
• Sources: It is present in fish liver oils, butter, milk,
eggs, liver and meat. Daily dose of vitamin D in
human body is about 0.025 mg.
• Deficiency Diseases: Its deficiency causes rickets in
children and oestromalacia in adults.

18. Vitamin E
• It is a mixture of four vitamins called α, β, ϒ, δ- tocopherols. It is also
called as fertility hormone.
• Vitamin E is required in the human diet but its deficiency is rare except in
pregnancy and the new born, where it is associated with hemolytic
anaemia.
• The tocopherols are derivatives of 6-hydroxy chromane (tocol) ring with
isoprenoid (3 units) side chain. The antioxidant property is due to the
hydroxyl group of chromane ring.
• Characteristics: It is stable to heat and oxidation.
• Sources: Its sources are vegetable oils (like wheat germ oil, cotton seed
oil, soybean oil, peanut oil etc.), eggs, milk etc. Its daily dose to human
body is about 5mg.
• Deficiency Disease: Its deficiency causes sterility, increased fragility
of RBCs and molecular weakness.

19. Vitamin K
• Its chemical name is phylloquinone and commonly called
as Antihaemorrhagic Vitamin or coagulation vitamin. And it is a complex
unsaturated hydrocarbon mixture of two vitamins called K1
(phylloquinone- in plants) and K2 (Menaquinone- in animals). Vitamin K3
(menadione) is a synthetic form.
• All the three vitamins (K1, K2, K3) are naphthoquinone derivatives.
Isoprenoid side chain is present in vitamins K1 and K2.
• Characteristics: It is sensitive to light and alkali.
• Sources: Vitamin K1- alfalfa, leafy vegetables and spinach. Vitamin K2-
occurs mainly in bacteria.
• Deficiency Disease: Its deficiency cause haemorrhage, it lengthens the
time of blood clotting.

20. Vitamins (Name) Rich food source Functions
Deficiency
Diseases
A (Retinol) Fish liver oils, dairy product, liver,
most leafy vegetables and carrots
contain carotene that can be
converted into retinol
Needed for normal growth and
induce differentiation of cells ,
Regeneration of rhodopsin in rod
cells of the eyes. Maintain of normal
vision, Essential for immune system
Dry skin, night
blindness(Nyctalopia)
D (Calciferol) Fish oils, egg yolk and butter. It
can be made by the action of
sunlight on skin
Promotes absorption of calcium from
intestine,
Necessary for formation of normal
bone
Rickets in children (soft
bones that bend easily).
Osteomalacia (painful
bones) in adults
E (Tocopherol) Vegetables oils, cereal products,
whole grain, nuts, egg, butter etc
Formation of red blood cells, affect
muscles and reproductive system.
Maintain healthy cholesterol level
Mild anaemia and
sterility.
K (Phylloquinone) Fresh, dark green vegetables.
Also made by gut bacteria
Formation of prothrombin (involved
in blood clotting
Delayed clotting time.
May occur in new born
babies before their gut
bacteria become
established

21. Co-enzymes
• Coenzymes play a role in the functions of cells. Reactions within the cells
work to either break down nutrients or combine molecules for cellular
activities that keep the cells alive.
• Enzymes speed up these reactions. Without enzymes, these reactions may
not occur.
• Coenzymes, in turn, support the functions of enzymes. They loosely bind
to enzymes to help them complete their activities. Coenzymes are
nonprotein, organic molecules that facilitate the catalysis, or reaction, of
its enzyme.
• Coenzymes can be classified into two groups depending on the interaction
with apoenzyme. The coenzymes of the first type-often called co-
substrates are substrates in the reactions catalyzed by enzymes. The
second type of the coenzymes is called the prosthetic groups. The
prosthetic group remains bonded for the enzyme during the reaction.

22. Function of Coenzymes
• Coenzymes work by binding to the active site of the enzymes, the site that
works in the reaction. Since enzymes and coenzymes are non-metal
organic molecules, they bind together by forming covalent bonds.
• The coenzymes share electrons with the enzymes, rather than lose or gain
electrons. When they form this bond, they only help the reaction to occur
by carrying and transferring electrons through the reaction. Coenzymes do
not become integral parts of the enzymatic reaction.
• Instead, the covalent bonds are broken at the end of the reaction, and the
coenzyme returns back to free circulation within the cell until it is used
again.
• Coenzymes act as group-transfer reagents such as Hydrogen, electrons, or
other groups can be transferred.

24. Coenzyme A
• The second type of the coenzymes is called the prosthetic
groups. The prosthetic group remains bonded for the enzyme
during the reaction.

25. Flavin coenzymes
• The flavin coenzymes, flavin–adenine dinucleotide (FAD [A) and flavin
mononucleotide (FMN, which lacks the second phosphate and the
adenosyl moiety of are derivatives of riboflavin (vitamin B2).
• The flavin coenzymes can exist in an oxidized form (FMNand FAD), a one-
electron reduced semiquinone form (FMN• And FAD• [B]), and a two-
electron reduced form (FMNH2 andFADH2 [C]).
A B C

26. Nicotinamide coenzymes
• The nicotinamide coenzymes include nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD1) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP1), which
differ only in the presence or absence of a phosphate group on the 2’-C of
the adenosyl moiety. Both NAD1 and NADP1 serve as reversible carriers of
reducing equivalents in the cell, and are utilized in a wide variety of
enzymatic reactions including, for example, alcohol dehydrogenase and
dihydrofolate reductase.

27. Folate coenzymes
• Tetrahydrofolate (TFH4) and related molecules serve as key coenzymes in
the biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines by supplying one-carbon units
for the various synthetic steps.
• N5-methyltetrahydrofolate is the methyl group donor in the biosynthesis
of methionine.

28. Phosphopantetheine coenzymes
• The phosphopantetheine coenzymes include the ubiquitous coenzyme A
(CoA [(A), in which 4’-phosphopantetheine is attached to an adenosyl
moiety, and acyl carrier protein (ACP [B]), in which 4’-phosphopantethiene
is attached to the small protein through a serine hydroxyl group.
A B

29. Ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q)
Reactive site(s)
• Ubiquinone (coenzyme Q)
(Figure 14a) is a coenzyme
soluble in fats synthesized by
all species. In the membrane,
ubiquinone transports
electrons between
enzymatic complexes
situated in the membrane.
Ubiquinone analog called
plastoquinone has a similar
function in the
photosynthetic transport of
electrons in chloroplasts

30. Other co-enzymes

31. Minerals
• Minerals are inorganic elements needed for the functioning of the body
• They make up about 4%of body weight of adults, they cannot be changed
or broken down.
• It is classify as:
– Macroelements: Which are needed in high quantities. Ex: Calcium
(Ca), Phosphorus (P), Sulphur(S), Magnesium(Mg), Potassium(K),
Chlorine(Cl), Sodium(Na).
– Microelements: Which are needed in smaller quantities. Ex:
Fluoride(F), Copper(Cu), Iodine(I), Iron(Fe), Zinc(Zn),
Molybednum(Mo), Selenium(Se).

32. Role of minerals
• Calcium ( Ca)
– Functions: Calcium plays myriad of functions that includes bones and
teeth formation, membrane transport, nerve transmission, muscle
contraction, hearth rhythm, blood clotting and enzyme cofactor
– Sources: milk, milk products and leafy vegetables
– Deficiencies : Osteoporosis and Bone fractures
– Excesses: Nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, kidney toxicity, irregular
heart beat, reduced absorption of iron and zinc.
• Sulphur (S)
– Functions: needed by most proteins
• Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl) and Sodium (Na)
– Functions: Osmotic Balance, Nerve impulse, Muscle contractions

33. • Phosphorus (P)
– Functions: in bone and teeth formation, ATP formation, creatine
phosphate, DNA and RNA, phospholipids and active transport
– Source: Cheese, milk, nuts and eggs
– Deficiencies: hypophosphatemia with symptoms similar to calcium
deficiency
– Excesses: Reduce body stores of calcium
• Magnesium (Mg)
– Functions: it acts as coenzymes for enzymes
– Sources: vegetables, cereals, beans, potatoes, cheese and animal
tissues
– Deficiencies: can result in poor calcium absorption
– Excesses: Heart problems and difficulty in breathing

34. • Fluoride (F)
– Functions: it strengthens bones
– Excesses: Browning of teeth, brittle bones, fatigue and muscle
weakness
• Iodine (I)
– Functions: Synthesis of thyroid hormones
– Deficiencies: Goitre, mental and physical retardation (cretinism)
• Iron (Fe)
– Functions: Haemoglobin synthesis
– Excesses: has been linked to arthritis, heart disease, diabetes,
infectious disease and cancer
• Cobalt (Co), Chromium (Cr) and Manganese(Mn)
– Functions: Cofactors for enzymes

35. • Copper (Cu)
– Functions: Cofactors for enzymes
– Deficiency: Anaemia, impaired immunity, altered iron metabolism.
• Zinc (Zn)
– Functions: Cofactors for enzymes, synthesis of testosterone and
sperm development
– Deficiencies: Reduced immune functions, Vomiting, gastric upset
and slow absorption of copper.
• Molybdenum (Mo)
– Functions: Cofactors for enzymes
– Excesses: Increased secretion of copper .
• Selenium (Se)
– Functions: Cofactors for enzymes
– Deficiencies: muscle pain or weakness and impaired immunity
– Excesses: Fragile nails, hair loss, fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea and
nerve damage.

36. Water
• Water is second only to oxygen in importance to the body.
• Water makes up 67 to 75 of the total body weight.
• Water is involved in all body processes. Water is an efficient heat
conductor and serves to maintain the uniform body temperature essential
for health. As a protector of internal organs, water is indispensable; it
serves as a cushion and prevents the transmission of shock from the
outside. It also serves as nature's solvent for many chemical compounds
and is the medium for many chemical reactions to occur.
• Water, in plant and animal foods and in the human body, transports other
substances either in solution or suspension. Within the body cells, water
migrates in and out.

37. Role of water
• Water is not just a transporter of nutritional elements. It plays an active
role in our metabolic processes.
– Breaking down food- Through a process called hydrolysis, water
molecules are part of the biochemical breakdown of proteins, lipids
and carbohydrates, which are structurally complex foods, into units
more absorbable by the body.
– Internal creation of water- On the other hand, different metabolic
reactions create water internally. This water is referred to as
"metabolic" or "endogenous". The body of a sedentary person
produces about 250-350 ml of metabolic/endogenous water a day.

38. • Water has the capacity to regulate the internal temperature of the body
in response to the external temperature.
- Sweat is the main means by which water prevents the human body
overheating when the temperature outside it is very high. The evaporation of
sweat brings a loss of calories, in the form of heat. This release of energy
enables our internal temperature to remain constant. Without this
mechanism it would rise in conditions of hot weather or fever. To maintain
stable body temperature, we have to both sweat and allow the sweat to
evaporate.
• Water & nutrient transport-
We have approximately 5 litres of blood in our body. Our two kidneys filter
about 180 litres of blood volume a day (125 ml/minute), performing this
filtration some 50 to 60 times a day. Yet we only urinate 1.2 to 2 litres of urine
daily. The kidneys have extraordinary powers of filtration and concentration.

39. • Water is an important vehicle for removing body waste products. As part
of the digestive juices, it helps to change consumed food into nutrients the
body can use. Within the bloodstream, it also helps to carry those
nutrients to the body cells in need, and carry away cellular waste
products. Waste products are then excreted from the body. Most
unwanted substances in the body can be removed from the body via the
urine.
• Water helps to form the lubricants found in the joints of the body. It is also
the basis for saliva, bile, and amniotic fluids (the important shock
absorbing fluid which surrounds and unborn foetus).