The document outlines clinical practice procedures for examining animals, focusing on history-taking and various examination techniques including visual inspection, physical assessments, and vital signs measurement. It covers key aspects such as patient data, disease history, body condition scoring, and the evaluation of lymph nodes, along with specific guidance on normal ranges for vital signs in different species. Additionally, it details prognosis classifications and drug dosage forms for veterinary practices.

1. Clinical Practice II
By
Dr. Megersa Akasa
(Ambo University)
+251949328583
megersaakasa8@gmail.com

2. Clinical Examination
 The routine examination of patient includes:
 History taking (Anamnesis)
 Examination of patient
 Inspection
 General clinical examination: Temperature, Respiration, Pulse….
 Physical examination: Palpation, Percussion, Auscultation
 Regional/Systemic clinical examination
• Examination of head, neck, thorax and abdomen.

3. History-taking (Anamnesis)
 History taking means obtaining information regarding patients
illness from animal owner or accompanying attendant through
careful interrogation or cross-questioning.
 It helps in making accurate diagnosis and giving prognosis of
disease.
 It includes:
 Patient Data
 Disease History
 General History

4. Cont…
Patient Data
 This comprises information pertaining to;
 Species
 Breed Animal
 Age
 Sex
 This help:
 In identification of patient and
 Give clue on diagnosis of certain diseases.

5. Cont…
Disease History: it includes
 Present/ Immediate history
 It is concerned with the sequence of events associated with
present illness.
 Past/ Previous history
 It deals with the past problems and sequence of events
associated with it.

6. Present/ Immediate history
 Duration of illness.
 Appetite: normal, increased, decreased
and abnormal.
 Water intake: normal, increased,
decreased.
 Defecation: frequency, quantity, color,
consistency, odour of faeces.
 Urination: posture, frequency, quantity,
color of urine.
 Rumination, Respiration.
 Physical activity, gait, posture.
 Growth in young and milk production in
lactating animals.
 Drug used, doses given, duration
maintained if animal is treated.
 Nature and duration of previous
illness.
 Morbidity, mortality and case
fatality rates.
 Clinical sign observed, laboratory
tests performed, and diagnosis
made.
 Treatment given, control measures
adopted, and results obtained.
Past/Previous history

7.  General history
 It includes information pertaining to;
 Nutrition
• Type, quality, and quantity of feed given and compare it with
standard nutritional requirement.
• Changes made in the feeds/fodders if any.
• Drinking water: source, quality and quantity.
 Reproductive and Breeding status
 Environment/Climate/Season and General managemental
practices
Cont…

8. Examination of Patient
 Inspection
 It is a visual examination of the patient.
 It comprises;
 Physical/Body condition
 Body confirmation/Appearance
 Posture
 Gait
 Behaviour/Demeanor
 Abnormal actions
 Skin and hair coat

9.  General Clinical Examination
 Temperature
 Temperature conversions:
°C = (°F – 32) × 5/9
°F = (°C × 9/5) + 32
 Respiration (Respiratory rate)
 Pulse/Heart rate
 Body condition
 Capillary Refill Time (CRT)
Cont…

10. Normal Rectal Temperature of Animals at Rest
Animals Body Temperature
Range (oC) Average (oC)
Cattle/ adult 37.8 –39.2 38.5
Calve/up to 1 year 38.6-39.8 39.2
Horse/adult 37.2-38.0 37.6
Foal 37.5-38.5 38.0
Sheep 38.9-40.0 39.5
Goat 38.6-40.2 39.4
Pig/adult 37.9-38.9 38.4
Piglet 38.8-40.0 39.4
Dog/small breed 38.6-39.2 38.9
Dog/large breed 37.5-38.6 38.0
Cat 37.8-39.2 38.5
Chicken 41.0-42.0 41.5
Camel 35.0-37.0 36.0

11. Normal Respiratory Rate of Animals
Animal Breaths/minute (Range)
Horse (adult) 8-16
Foal 10-25
Cattle (adult) 25-30
Calf (up to 1 year) 24-36
Sheep, Goat, Pig 10-20
Dog (small breed) 24-36
Dog (large breed) 16-30
Cat 20-30
Camel 5-12
Chicken 15-30

12. Site of Pulse Taking in Domestic Animals
1. Equine
 External maxillary artery
 Transverse facial artery
 Median artery
 Great metatarsal artery
2. Cattle and Pig
 Middle coccygeal artery
 Facial artery
 Median artery
3. Sheep, Goat, Calf: Femoral artery.
4. Piglet, Dog and Cat: Femoral artery.

13. Normal Pulse Rate of Animals
Animals Pulse rate/minute
Cattle 60-90
Young calves 100-120
Horse 28-42
Foal up to 1 year 70-80
Sheep 68-90
Goat 68-90
Pig 60-90
Dog 90-130
Cat 110-130
Chicken 200-400
Camel 35-40

14. Normal Heart Rate of Animals
Species Beats per minute (Range)
Cat 120-140
Chick 350-450
Chicken (adult) 250-300
Dairy cow 48-84
Dog 70-120
Goat 70-80
Sheep 70-80
Horse 28-40
Ox 36-60
Pig 70-120
Rabbit 180-350

15.  The examination of rumen comprises inspection, palpation, percussion and
auscultation.
 Rumen auscultation is done by keeping chest piece of stethoscope in the
center of paralumbar fossa.
 The frequency and amplitude/strength of ruminal motility and ruminal sounds
should be recorded.
 Note: Normal ruminal contractions
 1-3/ one minutes or 3-5/ 5 minutes.
 Hypomotility due to TRP, Indigestion, Rumen impaction, Toxaemia,
Dehydration, and Hypocalcemia.
 Hypermotility due to Vagus indigestion, Diaphragmatic hernia, and early
stage of bloat.
Rumen Motility

16. Gut Sound
 Abdominal (bowel) sounds refer to noises made within the small
and large intestines, typically during digestion.
 Auscultation of the abdomen allows for characterization of these
sounds as hypoactive, normoactive, and hyperactive.
 Normal bowel sounds
 Hyperactive bowel sounds: indicate an increase intestinal activity
 Hypoactive bowel sounds: indicate a decline intestinal activity.
 Absence of bowel sounds

18. Cont…
 Identify those sounds and their causes;
 Intermittent noises
 Gurgling or clicking noise
 Rumbling
 Borborygmi
 Splashing
 Tinkling
 Metallic or ringing
 High pitched
 Drum, dull and hyper-resonant sounds

19.  Body condition scoring;
 Is a management tool designed to assess body reserves or
fat accumulation of an animal.
 Is a system to estimate the levels of fat and muscle coverage,
to identify whether an animal is too fat, too thin or a healthy
weight.
 It can also be used to monitor changes in an animal's weight
over time.
Body Condition of Animals

20. How to Estimate Body Condition of Cattle

24.  How to Condition Score in Sheep
 Condition score is assessed by handling the animal over and round the
back bone in the area of the loin above the last long rib (see Figure 2).
1. Locate the short ribs of the sheep, directly after the final, 13th long rib
(figure 2).
2. Using the balls of fingers and your thumb, feel the level of fat cover
over the vertical processes (spine) with your thumb and the level of
roundness of muscle and fat cover over the horizontal processes (short
ribs) with your fingers.
3. The final step is to assess the eye muscle and its cover by pressing the
fingers into the area between the vertical and horizontal processes.
Fig 2

26.  Skeletal check points on Goat
1. The spinous processes in the centre of the goats’s back behind the
last rib and in front of its hip bone.
2. The tips of the transverse processes.
3. The fullness of muscle and fat cover between spinous and
transverse processes.
4. Hollow in the flanks below the loin (fat cover on the rib cage, on the
ribs and intercostals (between ribs) spaces.
5. Fat covering on the sternum.

27. Estimation of Body Weight
 The domestic animals body weight estimation equation as
following;
 Equation of Equine body weight estimation:
 Weight (kg) = (girth measurement in cm) x (length measurement in cm)
 Equation of Bovine body weight estimation:
 Live weight in lbs. = Body Length x (Heart Girth)
11,900
2
300
2

28. Bwt in lbs = HG x HG x BL
300
Bwt in lbs = HG x HG x BL
400
If Hog/Sow Bwt < 150 lbs….add 7 lbs
to the final answer
Bwt in lbs = HG x HG x BL
301,330,280
301 - Yearling
330 - Mature horse
280 - Weanling
Bwt in lbs = HG x HG x BL
300
HG - Heart Girth
BL - Body Length
lbs – Pound, 1 kg = 2.2 lbs

29. Capillary Refill Time
 It is a useful indicator of perfusion of peripheral tissues and the state of
the cardiovascular system.
 The gingiva over the incisor teeth is lightly compressed with the ball of
the thumb to blanch the tissue.
 The time required for the blanched area to return to its original color is
the capillary refilling time.
 Normally this is between “1 and 2” seconds.
 In healthy animals, the CRT should be less than 2 seconds.
 A CRT of more than 5 seconds is abnormal, and between 2 and 5
seconds may indicate a developing problem.

30. Examination of Visible Mucous Membrane
 Visible mucous membrane will be useful in giving the health
status of animals.
 Visible mucous membranes, which examined by inspection
include;
 Conjunctival,
 Nasal,
 Buccal
 Vaginal
 Rectal, Urethral, Cloacal
 The best mucosa to be examined is the conjunctiva, which
provides a good indication of the state of the peripheral
circulation.

31.  The normal colour of mucous membrane of different animals.
 Animal Colour of mucous membrane
 Cattle, sheep and goat……………Pale pink
 Horse……………………………..Pale roseate
 Pig………………………………..Reddish
 Dog…………………………….....Pale roseate
 Cat………………………………..Pale pink
Cont…

32. Abnormal color of mucus membrane
 Pale mucous membranes: due to a reduction in red blood cells,
and that results in a decreased oxygen delivery to the tissue.
 Blood loss anaemia.
 Parasitic infestations leading to haemolysis.
 Tumours or leucosis, Iron deficiency anemia.
 Long-standing infectious diseases.
 Exposure to X-rays and some medications.

33.  Congested mucous membranes
 High environmental temperatures and exercise.
 Any disease resulting in fever.
 Existence of infectious disease.
 Diseases of the heart, brain and its membranes.
Cont…

34.  Yellowish or Icteric mucous membranes
 Icterus of jaundice occurs due to increase of blood bilirubin
concentration (blood parasites, leptospirosis, hepatitis, cholangitis,
cholecystitis and cholangiohepatitis).
 Infectious anaemia and contagious pleuropneumonia of horses.
 Chronic gastric dilatation.
Cont…

35.  Cyanotic mucous membranes
 Bluish discoloration of visible mucous membranes resulting from
presence of reduced haemoglobin in blood capillaries.
 Myocarditis, pericarditis or cardiac insufficiency.
 Existence of heart or lung dysfunction.
 Plant and mineral intoxications.
Cont…

36.  Petechial hemorrhages
 Existence of infectious diseases and dysfunction of cardiovascular
system.
Cont…

37.  Examination of Lymph Nodes (L.N) had an important role in
the diagnosis of different diseases affected animals.
 Examination of L.N includes;
1-Examination by Inspection (Less important)
2-Examination by Palpation (More important)
3-Obtaining biopsy specimens
Examination of Lymph nodes

38.  During examination of Lymph Nodes we have to note the following;
1-Examination of the size
2-Any Felling of pain sensation/reaction during examination
3-Presence of L.N lobulations
4-Examintion of the consistency of the L.N
5-Examination of temperature of the overlying skin
6-Abscess formation
7-Examination of maturation and presence of discharge
8-Presence of adhesion between the L.N and adjacent tissues
9-Unilateral or bilateral affection
Cont…

39. Characteristics Normal Lymph Nodes Abnormal Lymph Nodes
Size Normal size, not enlarged or
swollen
Naturally always larger in
younger animals than in adults
Enlarged (swelled)
(Lymphadenitis)
Consistency Firm and cold Less hardness and hot
Structure Have a smooth structure on
palpation
Have irregular structure, not
smooth
Lobulation No lobulations Lobulated
Movability Movable
(Freely movable, no adhesion)
Non-movable
(Fixed and have adhesions)
Pain reaction Absent Present (animal will feel
pain)
Presence of
Discharge
Have no discharge Have an inflammatory
discharge sometimes
Cont…

40.  Superficial Palpable Lymph Nodes (L.N)
1- Submandibular L.N
 Situated and are palpable on the medial aspect of the ‘angle of the jaw’
where the horizontal and vertical rami of the mandible meet. (Normal size
is 1.5 to 2 cm).
2-Prescapular L.N
 In cattle and sheep: Its presence in the front and slight dorsal to the point
of the shoulders (Forward to the shoulder point) just anterior to the
shoulder joint. (Normal size 1 cm × 3.5 cm).
 In horses (Non Examine) because it lay on the anterior border of the
anterior deep pectoral muscle.
Cont…

41. 3- Prefemoral L.N (Precrural)
 In cattle and sheep: Its present above the fold of the flank dorsal
to the stifle.
4-Supramammary L.N
 In cattle and sheep: They are present on the caudal aspect of the
udder just above the upper limit of the mammary glandular
tissue. (Normal size 2.5 cm)
 In cattle they divided into two parts right and left each part have
two lobes.
Cont…

48. Prognosis
 Prognosis- giving prognosis means expressing an opinion as
to the probable duration and outcome of the disease.
 Prognosis can be classified into;
 Favourable
 Doubtful
 Poor
 Guarded
 Grave

49.  Favourable Prognosis
 100% surety of recovery in case of Favourable Prognosis. For example,
uncomplicated traumatic peritonitis in cattle.
 Doubtful Prognosis
 50% chances are there in Doubtful Prognosis, which clinician cannot
estimate or determine the extent of damage. For example, traumatic
reticulo-peritonitis with adhesion of diaphragm with abdomen.
 Poor Prognosis
 25% chance of recovery in poor prognosis cases. For example, traumatic
reticulo-peritonitis complicated by abscess in liver.
 Guarded Prognosis
 Serious condition with uncertain outcome is the Guarded Prognosis.
For example, Dog affected with chronic kidney disease.
 Grave Prognosis
 100% surety of death or fatality in Guarded Prognosis. For example,
traumatic peritonitis following penetration of sharp foreign object.

50. Drugs Dosage Forms
Oral drug dosage
forms
Parentral drug
dosage forms
Topical drug dosage
forms
Inhalation
drug dosage
forms
Solids
(tablets, boluses
capsules, powders,
granules, premixes,
and medicated
blocks)
Injectable
(solutions,
suspensions,
emulsions, and dry
powders for
reconstitution)
Solids
(Dusting powder)
Gaseous and
volatile liquid
anaesthetic
agent (drugs)
Semi-solids (Paste) Subcutaneous
implants
Semisolids (creams,
ointments, and pastes)
Liquids (solutions,
suspensions, and
emulsions)
Intra-mammary
infusions
Liquids (solutions,
suspension concentrates,
suspoemulsions, and
emulsifiable
concentrates)
Intra-vaginal
delivery systems
Spot-on, pour-on, and
backliner formulations

51. Question
 Which one is : Dose
: Dosage rate / Dose rate
: Concentration
A. 10 mg/ml
B. 15 ml
C. 20 mg/kg