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Variations in citation practices across the scientific landscape: Analysis based on a large full-text corpus
- 1. Variations in citation practices across the scientific landscape: Analysis based on a large full-text corpus Wout S. Lamers*, Nees Jan van Eck & Ludo Waltman <*w.s.lamers, ecknjpvan, waltmanlr>@cwts.leidenuniv.nl Centre for Science and Technology Studies (CWTS), Leiden University
- 2. Goals • Publication full text as a new data source – Extent of engagement with cited work? – What is the role of cited works in new narrative? – Do scientific disciplines differ in how they utilize cited works? • This paper: combine full text features with maps of science to show variation across fields – Can we map differences in scientific activities / ways in which knowledge is produced? – Focus on verbs & activities 1
- 3. The scientific landscape 2 868 scientific fields, WoS
- 6. Data collection 5 … Scientific fields Field publications (2002 – 2011) 868 ~7.000.000 Web of Science
- 7. Data collection 6 … Scientific fields Field publications (2002 – 2011) Citing publications (2002 - 2016) … 868 ~4.000.000 ScienceDirect ~7.000.000 Web of Science
- 8. Citing publications Data collection 7 … Scientific fields Field publications … 868 ~58.000.000 …to test for differences between tooth types (e.g., Grine, 2005). ...as Grine (2005) also noted this in humans. …thicker enamel compared to the lingual cusps.22,23 Citing sentences … … ~7.000.000 Web of Science ~4.000.000 ScienceDirect
- 9. Data collection 8 Scientific fields 868 …to test for differences between tooth types (e.g., Grine, 2005). ...as Grine (2005) also noted this in humans. Citing sentences …thicker enamel compared to the lingual cusps.22,23 … ~58.000.000
- 10. Data collection 9 …to test for differences between tooth types (e.g., Grine, 2005). ...as Grine (2005) also noted this in humans. …thicker enamel compared to the lingual cusps.22,23 …
- 11. Data collection 10 ...as Grine (2005) also noted this in humans. …thicker enamel compared to the lingual cusps.22,23 … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …… … … … … … …to test for differences between tooth types (e.g., Grine, 2005).
- 12. Features of interest • …to test for differences between tooth types (e.g., Grine, 2005). • ...as Grine (2005) also noted this in humans. • …thicker enamel compared to the lingual cusps.22,23 11
- 13. Features of interest Citation styles – author-year and others • …to test for differences between tooth types (e.g., Grine, 2005). • ...as Grine (2005) also noted this in humans. • …thicker enamel compared to the lingual cusps.22,23 Known disciplinary variation 12
- 14. Features of interest Direct (‘integral’) inclusion of cited author in sentence • …to test for differences between tooth types (e.g., Grine, 2005). • ...as Grine (2005) also noted this in humans. • …thicker enamel compared to the lingual cusps.22,23 Indicative of higher engagement 13
- 15. Features of interest Use of verbs within the sentence • …to test for differences between tooth types (e.g., Grine, 2005). • ...as Grine (2005) also noted this in humans. • …thicker enamel compared to the lingual cusps.22,23 Activities associated with cited literature 14
- 16. Overlay maps 15
- 17. Overlay - author-year style citation 17
- 18. Overlay - cited author integral to citing sentence 18
- 19. Observations • Author-year labels favored in SSH and Life and Earth sciences • Author names included in sentences in SSH and Mathematics, CS, Physics • Limited overlap! 19
- 20. A closer look at verbs 20 • Verbs represent actions, activities – Either performed by the cited authors – Or otherwise intrinsic to the research field • Do certain types of verbs occur more often in certain scientific fields? • Surprisal score log2 𝑝 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏,𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑝 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
- 21. A closer look at individual verbs: suggest 24 Half as common in scientific field Twice as common in scientific field
- 22. A closer look at individual verbs: advocate 25
- 23. A closer look at individual verbs: propose 26
- 24. Suggest – advocate - propose • Often used synonymously – Wiek and Walter (2009) ADVOCATE a transdisciplinary approach; Walker et al. (2001) PROPSE an adaptive approach. • Suggest – Inference from data: …located between 2.6 and 2.9µm, which SUGGEST the presence of some hydroxylated phase… • Propose – Call to action: Saleh et al. (2003) PROPOSE to distinguish whether a design can respond to known or unknown environmental changes… – Presentation: Ratanamahatana and Gunopulos (2003) PROPOSE another filter algorithm for attribute selection. • Advocate – As a research object: CEOs may seek greater salaries and ADVOCATE high levels of stock option compensation … (Brandes et al., 2003). 27
- 25. A closer look at individual verbs: think 28
- 26. A closer look at individual verbs: deduce 29
- 27. Think - deduce • Deduce – Strong focus on logical inference • Using Theorem 4 and Theorem 3.1 of [14], we immediately deduce the following: • From this we deduce that PQ=QP(cf. [2, Remark 2.2]). • Think – Informal language • We think that the growth of CNPs may suffer from the processes of carbohydrate polymerization… • So, I think that the desirable inspecting results can be obtained by integrating several different … testing technologies [71]. – In the context of the research object • Brown (2004) reported that one interviewee stated that strong candidates are those who “think like a scientist” (p. 251). 30
- 28. A closer look at individual verbs: discuss 33
- 29. A closer look at individual verbs: argue 34
- 30. Argue - discuss • Argue – Attempts at persuasion • Similarly, some scholars argue that policies are symbolic, simply maintaining the status quo (see Kelly, 2005 for a review). • Alvesson and Karreman (2004) argue that it is important to investigate how subjectivity is formed “empirically”. • Discuss – Often simply an indicator of contents • Fleszar and Hindi [2] discuss some straightforward modifications of SS. • Neuberger and Counsell (2002) discuss the limitations of the Impact Factor... – As a research object in SSH – In the context of disagreements • Monton & van Fraassen (2003, p. 412) discuss Rosen’s objection, somewhat tangentally, in a footnote. 35
- 31. A closer look at individual verbs: observe 36
- 32. A closer look at individual verbs: demonstrate 37
- 33. Demonstrate - observe • Observe • The same trend has been observed by Hameed [6]. • GCC185 has been observed to bind and regulate syntaxin 16 [45]. • Demonstrate – Used for observation • Other studies demonstrate at least ~40% of the occult cancers being located in the (distal) fallopian tube.9,11,25,30,31,33,36 – Inference from data • Recent data demonstrate that the mouse collagen X promoter is… • Shapiro (2005) demonstrates a similar pattern amongst Food Stamp recipients, who reduce caloric intake over the course of… • Apparent disciplinary language preference 38
- 34. A closer look at individual verbs: prove 39
- 35. A closer look at individual verbs: conclude 40
- 36. Prove - conclude • Prove – Demonstration of effectiveness • The method has been PROVED under controlled laboratory conditions, up to a SNR=-30dB[3]. – As conclusion • The current genome-wide association studies PROVED this assumption to be correct [37–39]. • Conclude • Another comparison also CONCLUDED that ?SD values calculated by the Dorris–Gray method were more accurate compared to… • As CONCLUDED by Watson et al. (2005), degradation rates have to be decreased during upscaling from lab to field dimensions. 41
- 37. Findings 42 • Large differences in verb usage across the scientific landscape • Polysemy is evident, and makes it difficult to establish types or groups of similar verbs • Verb may indicate a research object, instead of a research act • Challenge: no guarantee verb is actually strongly associated with cited work
- 39. A closer look at verbs types 44 • Reporting verbs – Citing authors report on cited work – Research verbs • Analyse, demonstrate, detect, estimate, observe, measure, … – Cognition verbs • Accept, believe, infer, know, reason, theorize, think, understand, … – Discourse verbs • Argue, clarify, discuss, critique, imply, propose, refute, …
- 40. A closer look at verb types: Discourse verbs 46
- 41. A closer look at verb types: Research verbs 47
- 42. A closer look at verb types: Cognition verbs 48
- 43. A closer look at verb types: • Discourse verbs somewhat more frequent in social sciences, humanities, health • Research verbs occur slightly more in physical sciences, social sciences, health • Cognition verbs seem strongly favoured in social science, humanities, maths, CS Overall, effects are not very pronounced. 49
- 44. Experiment: LDA over all verbs and research fields • Raw verb counts, scientific fields as ‘documents’ 50
- 45. surgery, physical wellbeing 51 improve evaluate assess receive treat diagnose pour recommend grade score
- 46. chemistry, materials and machines 52 improve form exhibit prepare synthesize dope fabricate microwave absorb coat
- 47. maths, computers, particle physics 53 study propose consider follow solve let satisfy denote generalize compute
- 48. ecosystem, environment, planet(s) 54 occur indicate represent contain detect soil reconstruct infer strain record
- 49. cells, microbes, molecules 55 play induce regulate inhibit promote repress bind secrete encode localize
- 50. nutrition, biochemistry and neurology 56 increase reduce inhibit activate alter attenuate ameliorate exert elevate evoke
- 51. social sciences and humanities 57 find examine reflect focus face argue perceive engage learn argue pay
- 52. Challenges • Topics seem strongly associated with distinct regions of the scientific landscape • But, dominated by field-specific verbs – let, dope, pay, inhibit, ameliorate, secrete, soil, … • Solution? Restrict analysis to only reporting verbs or only ‘generic activities’? – What is and what is not a reporting verb? • follow, generate, process, correspond, compute, ascertain, uncover, invoke, judge, standardize, defend, appreciate, profile, .. – How do we restrict ourselves to ‘generic activities’ when that is explicitly not what we aim to find? 58