The document discusses different types of vaccines including whole-organism vaccines using killed or attenuated microbes, purified macromolecules like toxoids and capsular polysaccharides, recombinant vaccines using genes from pathogens, DNA vaccines, and multivalent subunit vaccines. It describes the mechanisms of how vaccines work to stimulate both humoral and cellular immunity, discusses their effectiveness and manufacturing, and associated risks. Recent research areas are also highlighted along with conclusions on the benefits of vaccines.

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VACCINES

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3. 3
•Introduction
•Types
➢Whole-Organism Vaccines
➢Purified Macromolecules as Vaccines
➢Recombinant vaccine
➢DNA vaccine
➢Multivalent Subunit Vaccines
•Mechanism
•Effectiveness
•Manufacturing Strategies
•Risk associated with vaccines
•Recent research
•Conclusion
•Reference
Contents

4. •British physician Edward Jenner, who in 1796 used the cowpox virus (Latin variola
vaccinia) to confer protectionagainst smallpox.
•In 1885 the French microbiologist Louis Pasteur and Emile Roux developed the
first vaccine against rabies.
Introduction
A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. It
contains certain agents that not only resembles a disease-causing microorganism but it also
stimulates body’s immune sustem recognize the foreign agents.
History:
Definition:
(Ref: www.wikipedia.org, www.britannica.com, www.pathmicro.med.sc.edu)
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Vaccines are dead or inactivated organisms or purified products derived from
them. There are several types of vaccines in use. They are:
Types
• Whole-Organism Vaccines
➢Killed
➢Attenuated
• Purified Macromoleculesas Vaccines
➢Toxoids
➢Capsular polysaccharides
➢Recombinant microbial antigens/Surface antigens
• Recombinant vaccine
• DNA vaccine
• Multivalent Subunit Vaccines (Ref: Kuby, book for Immunology)

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Many of the common vaccines currently in use consist of inactivated (killed) or live but
attenuated (avirulent) bacterial cells or viral particles.
Whole-OrganismVaccines
➢ Killed/Inactivated.
➢ Attenuated.
Killed/ Inactivated: Some vaccines contain killed, but previously virulent, micro-
organisms that have been destroyed with chemicals, heat, radioactivity or antibiotics.
Attenuated: Some vaccines contain live, attenuated microorganisms. Many of these are
live viruses that have been cultivated under conditions that disable their virulent
properties, or which use closely related but less dangerous organisms to produce a broad
immune response.
(Ref: Kuby, book for Immunology)

7. • BCG by growing TB in high cocentrations of bile.
• Treating Salmonella typhi with nitrosoguanidine, a
mutant strain lacking some enzymes that are
responsible for the virulence was isolated
• Th has been done with a herpesvirus vaccine for pigs,
in which the thymidine kinase gene was removed.
Because thymidine kinase is required for the virus to
grow in certain types of cells (e.g., neurons), removal of
this gene renderedthe virus incapable of causing
disease.
• A live, attenuated vaccine against infl uenza was
developed recently under the name FluMist. The virus
was grown at lower-than-normal temperaturesuntil a
coldadapted strain resulted that is unable to grow at
human body temperatureof 37ºC.
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Disease or pathogen Type of vaccine
WHOLE ORGANISMS
Bacterial cells
Anthrax
Cholera
Pertussis*
Plague
Tuberculosis
Typhoid
Inactivated
Inactivated
Inactivated
Inactivated
Live attenuated
Live attenuated
Classificationof commonvaccinesfor humans:
(Ref: Kuby, book for Immunology)

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Disease or pathogen Type of vaccine
Viral particles
Hepatitis A
Influenza
Measles
Polio (Sabin)
Polio (Salk)
Rabies
Rotavirus
Varicella zoster (chickenpox)
Yellow fever
Inactivated
Inactivated
Live attenuated
Live attenuated
Inactivated
Inactivated
Live attenuated
Live attenuated
Live attenuated
(Ref: Kuby, book for Immunology)

10. Attenuation vs. Inactivation

11. • Th e Salk polio vaccine is produced by
formaldehyde inactivation of the poliovirus.
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• Inactivated exotoxins.
• Capsular polysaccharides.
• Recombinant microbial antigens/Surface antigens.
PurifiedMacromoleculesas Vaccines
(Ref: Kuby, Book forImmunology)

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Inactivatedexotoxins/Toxoid
• Toxoids are vaccines which consist of exotoxins that have been inactivated,
either by heat or chemicals. These vaccines are intended to build immunity
against the toxins, but not necessarily the bacteria that produce the toxins.
• Some examples are botulinumantitoxin and diphtheria antitoxin.
Fig: Modificationof toxin to toxoid
(Ref: Kuby, www2a.cdc.gov)

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• The virulence of some pathogenic bacteria depends primarily on the anti
phagocytic propertiesof their hydrophilic polysaccharide capsule.
• Coating of the capsule with antibodies and or complement greatly increases
the ability of macrophages and neutrophilsto phagocytose such pathogens.
• The current vaccine for Streptococcus pneumoniae, which causes
pneumococcal pneumonia, consists of 23 antigenically different capsular
polysaccharides.
Capsularpolysaccharides
(Ref: Kuby, www2a.cdc.gov)

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• The gene encoding any immunogenic protein can be cloned and expressed
in bacterial, yeast, or mammalian cells using recombinant DNA technology.
• The first such recombinant antigen vaccine approved for human use is the
hepatitis B vaccine. This vaccine was developed by cloning the gene for the
major surface antigen of hepatitis B virus (HBsAg) and expressing it in yeast
cells.
Recombinantmicrobialantigens/Surfaceantigen
(Ref: Kuby, bookfor Immunology)

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17. Conjugate vaccines
• H aemophilus i nfl uenzae type b (Hib): type b capsular polysaccharide
covalently linked to a protein carrier, tetanus toxoid.
• capsular Neisseria polysaccharide antigens joined to the highly
immunogenic diphtheria toxoid protein.
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(Ref: Kuby, bookfor Immunology)
RecombinantVaccines:
Fig: Productionof vacciniavectorvaccine.

19. .
• vaccinia virus,
• the canarypox virus,
• attenuated poliovirus, adenoviruses,
• Attenuated strains of Salmonella ,
• the BCG strain of Mycobacterium
bovis ,
• and certain strains of Streptococcus that normally
exist in the oral cavity
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DNA Vaccines:
Fig: Use of DNA vaccines raises both humoral and cellular immunity

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22. • No refrigeration
• cheap
• Both humoral and cell mediated immunity
• Ease of delivery (gold coated DNA)
• Prolonged expression of the antigen, enhancing the induction
of immunological memory.
• In addition, the same plasmid vector can be customtailored
to insert DNA encoding a variety of proteins, which allows the
simultaneous manufacture of a variety of DNA vaccines for
different pathogens, saving time and money.
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24. Multivalent subunit vaccines
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MultivalentSubunitVaccines
Multivalent subunit
vaccines
Solid matrix–
antibody-antigen
(SMAA) complex
Detergent to
protein antigens
(Ref: Kuby, bookfor Immunology)

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(Ref: Kuby, bookfor Immunology)
Solidmatrix–antibody-antigen(SMAA)complex
Fig: Solid matrixAntigen

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(Ref: Kuby, bookfor Immunology
Detergentto proteinantigens
Fig: b. Detergent extracted membrane antigens or antigenic peptides
c. ISCOM delivery of antigen into cell

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Mechanismof a vaccine
Fig: Mechanism of vaccine
(Ref: www.pathmicro.med.sc.edu)

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Vaccines do not guarantee completeprotection from a disease.
Adjuvants:
•An adjuvant (Latin, adiuvare: to aid) is a pharmacological or immunological
agent that modifies the effect of other agents, such as a drug or vaccine. They
are often included in vaccines to enhance the recipient's immune response to a
supplied antigen, while keeping the injected foreign material to a minimum.
Effectiveness
(Ref: www.wikipedia.org)

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• The primary risk associated with vaccines, especially vaccines that utilize live
organisms, is that the vaccine itself causes illness.
•Another risk is that the vaccine may behave as a super antigen and over stimulate the
immune system.
•Yet a third risk is that some individuals may have an allergic reaction to the vaccine,
especially vaccines produced in Embryonated chicken eggs and in transgenic plants.
Risksassociatedwithvaccines
Vaccines also have some sort of risks, like:
(Ref: www.wikipedia.org)

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• Approaches for designing a preventive HIV vaccine.
• Vaccine against Dengue Vaccine.
• NIH Scientists Identify New HIV-Inhibiting Protein.
•NIH Scientists Find Cause of Rare Immune Disease: Genetic Mutation Leads to Cold
Allergy, Immune Deficiency and Autoimmunity.
• NIH Found a Gene That May Play a Role in Type 1 Diabetes.
RecentResearch:
(Ref: www.niaid.nih.gov)

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Vaccines are one of the most effective health interventions
ever developed. Three types of vaccines are currently used in humans: attenuated
(avirulent) microorganisms, inactivated (killed) microorganisms, or purified
macromolecules. Recombinant vector vaccine and Plasmid DNA vaccines are also used.
They induce both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Some boosters (called adjuvants)
are also used in association with vaccines for increasing the immune response. As the
vaccines have a lot of benefits, they do carry some harmful effects too.
Conclusion

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Source:
•Janes Kuby, 2007, Vaccines, Immunology, W.H. Freeman and Company,
Newyork, sixth Edition, Pg. 413- 428.
•Satyanarayana U., 2010, Vacines, Biotechnolgy, BOOK’S AND ALLIED (P)
Ltd, Kolkata, sixth edition, Pg. 211-212.
Net Source:
• www.wikipedia.org
• www.britannica.com
• www.pathmicro.med.sc.edu
• www.mpi-magdeburg.mpg.de
• www.sc.edu
• www.niaid.nih.gov
Reference