The document summarizes urine analysis and urinalysis. It discusses the physical, chemical, and microscopic examination of urine samples. The physical exam evaluates characteristics like color, odor, clarity, and specific gravity. The chemical exam tests for proteins, glucose, ketones, blood, and other substances. The microscopic exam analyzes urine sediment for crystals, casts, and cells. Dipstick tests can rapidly analyze samples for several markers like protein, glucose, blood, and nitrites. Urine analysis provides information about kidney and metabolic function.
This document provides information and instructions for collecting urine samples and performing a urinalysis. It discusses obtaining first morning voids, clean-catch samples, and timed urine collections. The types of urinalysis covered are macroscopic examination, chemical analysis using urine dipsticks, microscopic examination, and culture. Specific tests on the dipstick like glucose, bilirubin, ketones, specific gravity, blood, pH, protein, urobilinogen, nitrite, and leukocyte esterase are explained.
Urine analysis is a common medical diagnostic tool that can evaluate general health, diagnose diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract, and monitor conditions like diabetes. A urine analysis involves macroscopic examination of properties like volume, color, odor, pH and specific gravity. Microscopic examination analyzes cellular elements and crystals in sediment. Chemical analysis tests for proteins, glucose, ketones, blood, and other substances. Abnormal results can indicate issues with the kidneys, urinary tract, liver or other organs. Precise diagnosis requires correlating clinical history with comprehensive urine analysis findings.
A nurse presented with jaundice, abdominal pain, and fever. Laboratory tests found elevated bilirubin, AST, and ALT levels. This suggests hepatic or hepatocellular jaundice likely due to a viral hepatitis infection.
An 8-year-old child presented with recurrent jaundice and bone pain. Laboratory tests were ordered which could indicate a hemolytic condition like sickle cell anemia.
A newborn presented with jaundice after 3 days. Laboratory tests found elevated unconjugated bilirubin, suggesting physiological jaundice of the newborn.
Biochemistry is the study of the structure and function of biological molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of living things. This includes organic molecules and their chemical reactions.
Biochemistry deals with body substance like enzymes, carbohydrates, amino acids, fats, proteins, hormones, DNA, RNA, pigments etc.
The major objective of biochemistry is the complete understanding of all chemical processes associated with living cells at the molecular level. Some of the objectives can be listed as follows:
1. Isolation, structural elucidation and the determination of mode of action of biomolecules.
2. Identification of disease mechanisms.
3. Study of in born errors of metabolism.
4. Study of oncogenes in cancer cells.
5. The relationship of biochemistry with the genetics, physiology, immunology, pharmacology, toxicology etc.
Biochemistry is related to almost all the life sciences and without biochemistry background and knowledge, a through understanding of health and well-being is not possible.
This document discusses laboratory diagnosis of renal diseases. It covers renal function tests like glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and clearance tests which are used to detect early renal impairment. GFR is estimated using creatinine clearance tests or formulas using serum creatinine. Urine analysis and renal biopsy are also used to diagnose and characterize renal diseases by examining features under light and electron microscopy. Renal biopsy can identify conditions affecting the glomeruli, tubules, interstitium or blood vessels. Recent advances include use of genomics and proteomics in renal disease diagnosis and classification.
Hemolytic anemia are disorders where red blood cell survival is reduced, either episodically or continuously. The bone marrow can increase red blood cell production up to eight times normal, so anemia only occurs when red blood cell survival is extremely short or the bone marrow's ability to compensate is impaired. Hemolytic anemia can be congenital or acquired. Investigations include blood counts, peripheral smears, reticulocyte counts, and tests of serum LDH, haptoglobin, bilirubin, and urine for hemosiderin and urobilinogen. Management may include folic acid, corticosteroids, IVIG, transfusions, erythropoietin, iron therapy, discontin
An immature red blood cell without a nucleus, having a granular or reticulated appearance when suitably stained.
Reticulocytes are the immature RBC that contain nucleus.
They are originally seen at the site of their formation i.e. bone marrow. They take 2-3 (lays for maturation only about 1-2% of circulating RBCs are Reticulocytes.
The document provides information on analyzing urinary electrolytes to evaluate extracellular volume status. It defines fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) and notes it is not dependent on urine volume and easy to calculate. While FENa and fractional excretion of chloride (FECl) generally vary in parallel, UNa and UCl can differ by more than 15 meq/L in 30% of volume depletion cases. Measuring both UNa and UCl is recommended in these situations to better evaluate volume status. Interpretation requires considering the clinical context as urinary electrolyte values considered normal may indicate inappropriate renal wasting in certain conditions.
This document provides information and instructions for collecting urine samples and performing a urinalysis. It discusses obtaining first morning voids, clean-catch samples, and timed urine collections. The types of urinalysis covered are macroscopic examination, chemical analysis using urine dipsticks, microscopic examination, and culture. Specific tests on the dipstick like glucose, bilirubin, ketones, specific gravity, blood, pH, protein, urobilinogen, nitrite, and leukocyte esterase are explained.
Urine analysis is a common medical diagnostic tool that can evaluate general health, diagnose diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract, and monitor conditions like diabetes. A urine analysis involves macroscopic examination of properties like volume, color, odor, pH and specific gravity. Microscopic examination analyzes cellular elements and crystals in sediment. Chemical analysis tests for proteins, glucose, ketones, blood, and other substances. Abnormal results can indicate issues with the kidneys, urinary tract, liver or other organs. Precise diagnosis requires correlating clinical history with comprehensive urine analysis findings.
A nurse presented with jaundice, abdominal pain, and fever. Laboratory tests found elevated bilirubin, AST, and ALT levels. This suggests hepatic or hepatocellular jaundice likely due to a viral hepatitis infection.
An 8-year-old child presented with recurrent jaundice and bone pain. Laboratory tests were ordered which could indicate a hemolytic condition like sickle cell anemia.
A newborn presented with jaundice after 3 days. Laboratory tests found elevated unconjugated bilirubin, suggesting physiological jaundice of the newborn.
Biochemistry is the study of the structure and function of biological molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of living things. This includes organic molecules and their chemical reactions.
Biochemistry deals with body substance like enzymes, carbohydrates, amino acids, fats, proteins, hormones, DNA, RNA, pigments etc.
The major objective of biochemistry is the complete understanding of all chemical processes associated with living cells at the molecular level. Some of the objectives can be listed as follows:
1. Isolation, structural elucidation and the determination of mode of action of biomolecules.
2. Identification of disease mechanisms.
3. Study of in born errors of metabolism.
4. Study of oncogenes in cancer cells.
5. The relationship of biochemistry with the genetics, physiology, immunology, pharmacology, toxicology etc.
Biochemistry is related to almost all the life sciences and without biochemistry background and knowledge, a through understanding of health and well-being is not possible.
This document discusses laboratory diagnosis of renal diseases. It covers renal function tests like glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and clearance tests which are used to detect early renal impairment. GFR is estimated using creatinine clearance tests or formulas using serum creatinine. Urine analysis and renal biopsy are also used to diagnose and characterize renal diseases by examining features under light and electron microscopy. Renal biopsy can identify conditions affecting the glomeruli, tubules, interstitium or blood vessels. Recent advances include use of genomics and proteomics in renal disease diagnosis and classification.
Hemolytic anemia are disorders where red blood cell survival is reduced, either episodically or continuously. The bone marrow can increase red blood cell production up to eight times normal, so anemia only occurs when red blood cell survival is extremely short or the bone marrow's ability to compensate is impaired. Hemolytic anemia can be congenital or acquired. Investigations include blood counts, peripheral smears, reticulocyte counts, and tests of serum LDH, haptoglobin, bilirubin, and urine for hemosiderin and urobilinogen. Management may include folic acid, corticosteroids, IVIG, transfusions, erythropoietin, iron therapy, discontin
An immature red blood cell without a nucleus, having a granular or reticulated appearance when suitably stained.
Reticulocytes are the immature RBC that contain nucleus.
They are originally seen at the site of their formation i.e. bone marrow. They take 2-3 (lays for maturation only about 1-2% of circulating RBCs are Reticulocytes.
The document provides information on analyzing urinary electrolytes to evaluate extracellular volume status. It defines fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) and notes it is not dependent on urine volume and easy to calculate. While FENa and fractional excretion of chloride (FECl) generally vary in parallel, UNa and UCl can differ by more than 15 meq/L in 30% of volume depletion cases. Measuring both UNa and UCl is recommended in these situations to better evaluate volume status. Interpretation requires considering the clinical context as urinary electrolyte values considered normal may indicate inappropriate renal wasting in certain conditions.
This document provides an introduction to hematology and summarizes key topics including:
1. The components of blood and cellular elements such as red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
2. Principles of hematologic diagnosis including medical history, physical examination, and laboratory evaluations like complete blood count and peripheral blood smear.
3. Causes of anemia including hypoproliferative anemias like anemia of chronic disease and anemia of renal disease.
4. Aplastic anemia, its definition, epidemiology, etiology including acquired, inherited, and secondary causes.
This document provides an overview of urine analysis including physical, chemical, and microscopic examination. Physical examination assesses volume, color, odor, pH, and specific gravity. Chemical examination tests for proteins, sugars, ketone bodies, bilirubin, and blood. Microscopic examination identifies epithelial cells, red blood cells, crystals, and casts which can indicate various conditions. Urine dipsticks provide a convenient qualitative analysis of various urine components. A comprehensive urine analysis evaluates kidney and bladder function and detects underlying diseases.
Red blood cell (RBC) indices measure the size, shape, and quality of your red blood cells. Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy.
This document outlines the approach to a patient presenting with jaundice. It begins with an introduction to bilirubin metabolism and the four main types of jaundice: hemolytic, hepatic, obstructive, and cholestatic. For each type, it describes the underlying causes, characteristic laboratory findings, and clinical features. The document then discusses the diagnostic workup, including liver function tests and imaging studies. It concludes with guidelines for differentiating the jaundice types and summarizing treatments based on the specific cause.
1. The document discusses potential adverse effects of blood transfusions, including immediate effects like acute hemolytic transfusion reactions and delayed effects such as transmission of infections.
2. It provides guidance on recognizing and investigating transfusion reactions, stating that all post-transfusion reactions should initially be considered hemolytic. Steps include stopping the transfusion, checking paperwork for errors, and obtaining samples for testing.
3. Tests are described to detect evidence of hemolysis or blood group incompatibility, and to check for complications like disseminated intravascular coagulation or acute renal failure.
The document provides information on urinalysis including guidelines for sample collection and storage. It discusses the various reasons urinalysis is performed such as to evaluate health, diagnose metabolic diseases, and monitor conditions like diabetes. Components normally present in urine like volume, pH, and inorganic/organic constituents are outlined. The document also describes the types of urinalysis including physical, chemical, microscopic, and cultural examinations. Microscopic examination involves identifying organized elements like epithelial cells, RBCs, WBCs, and casts as well as unorganized elements such as crystals and sediments.
The document discusses kidney function testing and the urinary system. It provides information on various tests used to evaluate kidney function, including clearance tests to measure glomerular filtration rate (GFR) using creatinine, urea, and uric acid. Clearance tests determine the rate at which the kidneys filter these waste products from the blood into urine. The document also discusses factors that affect interpretation of test results and when assessment of renal function is recommended.
This document discusses laboratory errors in medical practice. It notes that 0.1-3% of laboratory tests have errors, with most occurring in the pre-analytic and post-analytic phases rather than the analytic phase. Common pre-analytic errors include inappropriate test requests, order entry mistakes, misidentification of patients, and improper sample collection, transport, or storage. Analytic errors are less than 10% of total errors. The document also provides examples of how biological and behavioral factors can influence test results, and discusses clinical performance characteristics of medical tests.
Urinalysis for detection of abnormal constituentsrohini sane
An illustrative presentation on Urinalysis for detection of abnormal constituents for medical ,dental , pharmacology and biotechnology students to facilitate easy-learning.
Basic Principles and Practice of Clinical Chemistry quality management lec 2...biochembiochem
This document provides an overview of key concepts in clinical chemistry including units of measurement, solutions, and concentration. It discusses the SI standard units used in clinical labs and common prefixes applied to these units. Methods for expressing the concentration of solutions are covered, including percentage solutions, molarity, molality, and normality. Other topics include pH and buffers, temperature measurement and conversion, density, and techniques for interconverting between units. The document aims to define fundamental principles and terminology essential for understanding clinical chemistry measurements and results.
The document discusses the purpose and functions of clinical pathology and laboratory medicine in assisting clinicians. It outlines five main ways laboratories help clinicians, including confirming or rejecting diagnoses, providing guidance in patient management, establishing prognoses, detecting diseases through screening and case finding, and monitoring therapy. It also discusses the scope and role of clinical chemistry, various laboratory tests, types of specimens, substances measured, and factors that can cause cell malfunctions.
This document discusses megaloblastic anemia, which is caused by vitamin B12 or folate deficiency and results in abnormal red blood cell maturation in the bone marrow. The primary defect is in DNA synthesis, leading to large immature red blood cells called megaloblasts. This causes hypercellular bone marrow with megaloblasts and giant neutrophils. Peripheral blood smears show macrocytic anemia, hypersegmented neutrophils, and poikilocytosis. Diagnosis involves blood tests of vitamin B12, methylmalonic acid, and homocysteine. Pernicious anemia, the most common cause of B12 deficiency, is an autoimmune condition that lacks intrinsic factor. Non-me
This document provides information on kidney function tests. It begins with the anatomy and physiology of the kidney including glomerular filtration and tubular function. It then discusses various tests used to evaluate kidney function including clearance tests measuring glomerular filtration rate (GFR) using substances like inulin, creatinine, urea and tests of tubular function like concentration and dilution tests. It provides details of procedures, normal values and interpretation for various kidney function tests.
This document discusses various methods for determining hemoglobin levels and performing complete blood counts. It describes colorimetric methods, including direct visual and photoelectric techniques. Specific gravity and gasometric methods are also covered. Procedures are provided for reticulocyte counting using wet and dry methods. The hemocytometry method for red blood cell counting is explained in detail, including use of diluting fluids, Thoma pipettes, and counting chambers.
This document provides information about urine analysis. It discusses the formation of urine in the kidneys and nephrons. It outlines the normal constituents and composition of urine, including inorganic and organic components. It also describes the proper procedures for collecting, preserving, and examining urine samples, including physical, chemical, and microscopic analysis. Examination of urine can provide information about kidney and urinary tract functioning as well as diagnose various metabolic and systemic diseases.
Platelet count and hematocrit determination methodsNegash Alamin
1. The document describes the principles, procedures, and clinical significance of platelet count and hematocrit determination methods. Platelet count involves diluting blood with ammonium oxalate and counting platelets under a microscope, while hematocrit involves filling a capillary tube with blood and centrifuging it to measure the ratio of red blood cells to plasma.
2. Both tests help diagnose bleeding, clotting, and anemia issues by checking platelet and red blood cell levels. Abnormally high or low counts can indicate conditions like blood cancers, blood loss, kidney disease, or dehydration. Precise methods and calculations are required to obtain accurate results.
Lecture notes about the general examination of urine (Physical, chemical, and microscopic exam) for the first-year Medical Lab Technology Students.
Technical Institute of Baqubah, Middle Technical University, Baqubah, Iraq
The document discusses various pre-analytical and post-analytical errors that can occur in clinical laboratories. It notes that errors commonly occur in specimen receiving, sampling, transport, and results reporting. Some common errors include entering the wrong patient data, incomplete patient information, misidentifying tests, collecting samples from patients with the wrong test orders, and not fulfilling all requested investigations. The document also discusses various biological and environmental factors that can influence laboratory test results, such as patient posture, exercise, underlying medical conditions, drug use, and diet. Proper specimen collection and handling is important to avoid pre-analytical errors.
The urinary system functions to:
1. Excrete waste and regulate fluid/electrolyte balance through the kidneys' homeostatic functions.
2. Maintain blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin mechanism and produce erythropoietin to stimulate red blood cell production.
3. Maintain calcium-phosphorus bone homeostasis through vitamin D activation and parathyroid hormone regulation.
Assessment of urine includes examining physical characteristics, chemical measurements, microscopy, and bacteriuria detection to evaluate kidney function and identify any abnormalities. Common urinary system disorders include inflammatory conditions like glomerulonephritis and pyelonephritis, voiding dysfunction, chronic kidney disease, renal
1. Urinalysis provides important information for diagnosing and managing various renal and metabolic conditions. It involves examining the physical and chemical properties of a urine sample, as well as inspecting it microscopically.
2. The timing and method of urine collection depends on the tests being performed. A first morning midstream sample is preferred for routine analysis but random or postprandial samples are also used.
3. Normal urine has characteristics such as a yellow color, slight acidity, and absence of protein, glucose, and ketones. Abnormal findings provide clues to diseases like urinary tract infections or kidney disorders.
This document provides an introduction to hematology and summarizes key topics including:
1. The components of blood and cellular elements such as red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
2. Principles of hematologic diagnosis including medical history, physical examination, and laboratory evaluations like complete blood count and peripheral blood smear.
3. Causes of anemia including hypoproliferative anemias like anemia of chronic disease and anemia of renal disease.
4. Aplastic anemia, its definition, epidemiology, etiology including acquired, inherited, and secondary causes.
This document provides an overview of urine analysis including physical, chemical, and microscopic examination. Physical examination assesses volume, color, odor, pH, and specific gravity. Chemical examination tests for proteins, sugars, ketone bodies, bilirubin, and blood. Microscopic examination identifies epithelial cells, red blood cells, crystals, and casts which can indicate various conditions. Urine dipsticks provide a convenient qualitative analysis of various urine components. A comprehensive urine analysis evaluates kidney and bladder function and detects underlying diseases.
Red blood cell (RBC) indices measure the size, shape, and quality of your red blood cells. Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, carry oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy.
This document outlines the approach to a patient presenting with jaundice. It begins with an introduction to bilirubin metabolism and the four main types of jaundice: hemolytic, hepatic, obstructive, and cholestatic. For each type, it describes the underlying causes, characteristic laboratory findings, and clinical features. The document then discusses the diagnostic workup, including liver function tests and imaging studies. It concludes with guidelines for differentiating the jaundice types and summarizing treatments based on the specific cause.
1. The document discusses potential adverse effects of blood transfusions, including immediate effects like acute hemolytic transfusion reactions and delayed effects such as transmission of infections.
2. It provides guidance on recognizing and investigating transfusion reactions, stating that all post-transfusion reactions should initially be considered hemolytic. Steps include stopping the transfusion, checking paperwork for errors, and obtaining samples for testing.
3. Tests are described to detect evidence of hemolysis or blood group incompatibility, and to check for complications like disseminated intravascular coagulation or acute renal failure.
The document provides information on urinalysis including guidelines for sample collection and storage. It discusses the various reasons urinalysis is performed such as to evaluate health, diagnose metabolic diseases, and monitor conditions like diabetes. Components normally present in urine like volume, pH, and inorganic/organic constituents are outlined. The document also describes the types of urinalysis including physical, chemical, microscopic, and cultural examinations. Microscopic examination involves identifying organized elements like epithelial cells, RBCs, WBCs, and casts as well as unorganized elements such as crystals and sediments.
The document discusses kidney function testing and the urinary system. It provides information on various tests used to evaluate kidney function, including clearance tests to measure glomerular filtration rate (GFR) using creatinine, urea, and uric acid. Clearance tests determine the rate at which the kidneys filter these waste products from the blood into urine. The document also discusses factors that affect interpretation of test results and when assessment of renal function is recommended.
This document discusses laboratory errors in medical practice. It notes that 0.1-3% of laboratory tests have errors, with most occurring in the pre-analytic and post-analytic phases rather than the analytic phase. Common pre-analytic errors include inappropriate test requests, order entry mistakes, misidentification of patients, and improper sample collection, transport, or storage. Analytic errors are less than 10% of total errors. The document also provides examples of how biological and behavioral factors can influence test results, and discusses clinical performance characteristics of medical tests.
Urinalysis for detection of abnormal constituentsrohini sane
An illustrative presentation on Urinalysis for detection of abnormal constituents for medical ,dental , pharmacology and biotechnology students to facilitate easy-learning.
Basic Principles and Practice of Clinical Chemistry quality management lec 2...biochembiochem
This document provides an overview of key concepts in clinical chemistry including units of measurement, solutions, and concentration. It discusses the SI standard units used in clinical labs and common prefixes applied to these units. Methods for expressing the concentration of solutions are covered, including percentage solutions, molarity, molality, and normality. Other topics include pH and buffers, temperature measurement and conversion, density, and techniques for interconverting between units. The document aims to define fundamental principles and terminology essential for understanding clinical chemistry measurements and results.
The document discusses the purpose and functions of clinical pathology and laboratory medicine in assisting clinicians. It outlines five main ways laboratories help clinicians, including confirming or rejecting diagnoses, providing guidance in patient management, establishing prognoses, detecting diseases through screening and case finding, and monitoring therapy. It also discusses the scope and role of clinical chemistry, various laboratory tests, types of specimens, substances measured, and factors that can cause cell malfunctions.
This document discusses megaloblastic anemia, which is caused by vitamin B12 or folate deficiency and results in abnormal red blood cell maturation in the bone marrow. The primary defect is in DNA synthesis, leading to large immature red blood cells called megaloblasts. This causes hypercellular bone marrow with megaloblasts and giant neutrophils. Peripheral blood smears show macrocytic anemia, hypersegmented neutrophils, and poikilocytosis. Diagnosis involves blood tests of vitamin B12, methylmalonic acid, and homocysteine. Pernicious anemia, the most common cause of B12 deficiency, is an autoimmune condition that lacks intrinsic factor. Non-me
This document provides information on kidney function tests. It begins with the anatomy and physiology of the kidney including glomerular filtration and tubular function. It then discusses various tests used to evaluate kidney function including clearance tests measuring glomerular filtration rate (GFR) using substances like inulin, creatinine, urea and tests of tubular function like concentration and dilution tests. It provides details of procedures, normal values and interpretation for various kidney function tests.
This document discusses various methods for determining hemoglobin levels and performing complete blood counts. It describes colorimetric methods, including direct visual and photoelectric techniques. Specific gravity and gasometric methods are also covered. Procedures are provided for reticulocyte counting using wet and dry methods. The hemocytometry method for red blood cell counting is explained in detail, including use of diluting fluids, Thoma pipettes, and counting chambers.
This document provides information about urine analysis. It discusses the formation of urine in the kidneys and nephrons. It outlines the normal constituents and composition of urine, including inorganic and organic components. It also describes the proper procedures for collecting, preserving, and examining urine samples, including physical, chemical, and microscopic analysis. Examination of urine can provide information about kidney and urinary tract functioning as well as diagnose various metabolic and systemic diseases.
Platelet count and hematocrit determination methodsNegash Alamin
1. The document describes the principles, procedures, and clinical significance of platelet count and hematocrit determination methods. Platelet count involves diluting blood with ammonium oxalate and counting platelets under a microscope, while hematocrit involves filling a capillary tube with blood and centrifuging it to measure the ratio of red blood cells to plasma.
2. Both tests help diagnose bleeding, clotting, and anemia issues by checking platelet and red blood cell levels. Abnormally high or low counts can indicate conditions like blood cancers, blood loss, kidney disease, or dehydration. Precise methods and calculations are required to obtain accurate results.
Lecture notes about the general examination of urine (Physical, chemical, and microscopic exam) for the first-year Medical Lab Technology Students.
Technical Institute of Baqubah, Middle Technical University, Baqubah, Iraq
The document discusses various pre-analytical and post-analytical errors that can occur in clinical laboratories. It notes that errors commonly occur in specimen receiving, sampling, transport, and results reporting. Some common errors include entering the wrong patient data, incomplete patient information, misidentifying tests, collecting samples from patients with the wrong test orders, and not fulfilling all requested investigations. The document also discusses various biological and environmental factors that can influence laboratory test results, such as patient posture, exercise, underlying medical conditions, drug use, and diet. Proper specimen collection and handling is important to avoid pre-analytical errors.
The urinary system functions to:
1. Excrete waste and regulate fluid/electrolyte balance through the kidneys' homeostatic functions.
2. Maintain blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin mechanism and produce erythropoietin to stimulate red blood cell production.
3. Maintain calcium-phosphorus bone homeostasis through vitamin D activation and parathyroid hormone regulation.
Assessment of urine includes examining physical characteristics, chemical measurements, microscopy, and bacteriuria detection to evaluate kidney function and identify any abnormalities. Common urinary system disorders include inflammatory conditions like glomerulonephritis and pyelonephritis, voiding dysfunction, chronic kidney disease, renal
1. Urinalysis provides important information for diagnosing and managing various renal and metabolic conditions. It involves examining the physical and chemical properties of a urine sample, as well as inspecting it microscopically.
2. The timing and method of urine collection depends on the tests being performed. A first morning midstream sample is preferred for routine analysis but random or postprandial samples are also used.
3. Normal urine has characteristics such as a yellow color, slight acidity, and absence of protein, glucose, and ketones. Abnormal findings provide clues to diseases like urinary tract infections or kidney disorders.
This document provides a detailed overview of a urine report, including both the physical and chemical examination of urine. It discusses the normal constituents of urine and how they can indicate various pathological conditions. Specifically, it examines the urine's volume, odor, color, appearance, specific gravity, pH, and any deposits. For each component, it outlines the normal values and significance, as well as how various physiological and pathological factors can influence the results. The goal of the urine report is to detect both normal and abnormal findings that can help diagnose conditions affecting the urinary system.
This document describes 4 case studies and provides information about normal urine output and abnormalities. It examines the physical characteristics and results of various urine tests, including tests for protein, glucose, ketones, blood, and abnormalities like polyuria and oliguria. The tests described include Heat and Acetic Acid test for protein, Benedict's test for glucose, and Rothera's test for ketones. Causes and significance of results are explained for abnormalities in volume, color, odor and other physical characteristics.
This document discusses renal function tests (RFTs) which are used to assess kidney function. It outlines the key functions of the kidney including excretion of waste, regulation of acid-base balance and electrolyte levels. RFTs evaluate parameters like glomerular filtration rate, renal blood flow, and tubular function. There are four main types of RFTs: urine analysis, concentration/dilution tests, blood chemistry tests, and renal clearance tests. Blood chemistry tests measure waste products like creatinine and urea to indicate kidney excretion ability, while urine tests examine physical/chemical properties and sediment to identify abnormalities. RFTs are used to diagnose and monitor kidney disease as well as drug toxicity.
Value of urinalysis in clinical medicinesahar Hamdy
The document discusses urinalysis and its value in clinical medicine. It describes the formation of urine and its physical composition. Normal components include urea, uric acid, and ammonia. Urinalysis involves physical, chemical, and microscopic examination to obtain health information. Physical examination assesses volume, color, odor, and specific gravity. Chemical examination detects substances like glucose, ketones, proteins, blood, and pH. Microscopic examination identifies cellular elements and crystals. Urine specimens are obtained through various collection methods and stored appropriately to prevent changes prior to testing.
Value of urinalysis in clinical medicine copySahar Hamdy
This document discusses the value of urinalysis in clinical medicine. It covers the formation and composition of urine, obtaining urine specimens, and the four main types of urinalysis testing - physical, chemical, microscopic, and culture.
The physical exam of urine evaluates characteristics like volume, color, odor and specific gravity. Chemical testing detects substances like glucose, ketones, proteins, blood, and pH. Microscopic analysis identifies cellular or crystalline components. Urine culture identifies microorganisms. Together, urinalysis provides valuable information about kidney and body health.
The document provides information on urine and stool examination procedures. Urine analysis includes physical, microscopic, and chemical tests to evaluate health and diagnose kidney, urinary tract, and other diseases. Stool examination includes physical, microscopic, and chemical analysis to diagnose gastrointestinal conditions like diarrhea and detect parasites. Both exams provide valuable information for disease diagnosis and monitoring patient health.
This document provides information on urine analysis and examination. It discusses the importance of analyzing urine promptly after collection and outlines appropriate collection, storage, and examination methods. Physical, biochemical, and microscopic tests are described in detail. Key findings are interpreted, such as the clinical significance of various cells, casts, crystals, and substances that may be present in urine. Proper collection and handling of urine specimens is also reviewed. The document aims to serve as a guide for physicians on evaluating urine as an important diagnostic tool.
This document provides an overview of renal function and renal function tests. It discusses the key functions of the kidneys including electrolyte and water balance, acid-base balance, and excretion of waste products. It describes factors that regulate renal function such as autoregulation, neural and hormonal control. Causes of renal dysfunction including acute and chronic kidney disease are outlined. Consequences of impaired renal function like retention of waste products and end organ damage are summarized. Finally, the document categorizes and describes various renal function tests including clearance tests, urine analysis, imaging studies, and renal biopsy.
This document provides an overview of renal function and renal function tests. It discusses the key functions of the kidneys including electrolyte and water balance, acid-base balance, and excretion of waste products. It describes factors that regulate renal function such as autoregulation, neural and hormonal control. Causes of renal dysfunction including acute and chronic kidney disease are outlined. Consequences of impaired renal function include retention of waste products and end organ damage. Various renal function tests are classified and described, including clearance tests to measure glomerular filtration rate and tubular function, blood and urine tests, and imaging techniques.
Detection of Abnormal constituents of urine.pptxSeemaLekhwani2
This document discusses various abnormal constituents that may be present in urine, including proteins, carbohydrates, ketone bodies, bile pigments, bile salts, and blood. It provides details on the normal levels of these constituents and potential causes for their presence in excessive amounts. Tests for detecting each constituent are also outlined, such as heat coagulation, Benedict's, and Rothera's tests.
The document provides information about fluid and electrolyte balance. It discusses the distribution and composition of body fluids, normal fluid exchange, and electrolyte disturbances including hypovolemia, hypervolemia, hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, hypercalcemia, hypomagnesemia, and hypermagnesemia. It also covers parenteral fluid therapy including intravenous fluids, methods of calculating fluid transfusion rates, and management of fluid balance in surgical patients.
This document provides an overview of fluid and electrolyte physiology and therapy. It discusses the distribution and composition of body water, normal fluid exchange, and electrolyte disturbances including hypovolemia, hypervolemia, hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, hypercalcemia, hypomagnesemia, and hypermagnesemia. It also covers parenteral fluid therapy including intravenous fluids, methods of calculating infusion rates, and fluid management in surgical patients.
"Abnormal Constituents of Urine" practicalAmeet Jha
This document provides information on analyzing the constituents found in normal and abnormal human urine. It lists the normal ranges for creatinine, uric acid, urea, and other electrolytes found in urine. It also describes various tests used to detect abnormalities in urine like glucose, ketones, proteins, and bile constituents. Physical characteristics of urine like color, clarity, odor and their clinical significance are explained. Factors affecting the preservation of urine specimens and how they change if not preserved properly are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of clinical chemistry and urinalysis. It defines urine and describes the major components of the urinary system. The kidney is composed of nephrons, which filter waste from the bloodstream. Urine is regulated by filtration, reabsorption, and secretion processes in the nephron. Urinanalysis examines the physical, chemical, and microscopic properties of urine to evaluate kidney function and detect diseases. Abnormal findings may indicate conditions like diabetes, urinary tract infections, or kidney failure.
This document discusses the composition and functions of the various body fluids. It begins by explaining that body fluids help maintain homeostasis, transport nutrients and waste, and comprise 60-80% of body weight depending on age and body type. The two main fluid compartments are intracellular fluid within cells and extracellular fluid outside cells. Extracellular fluid further includes interstitial fluid between cells and plasma in blood. The document then examines the distribution and movement of fluids, factors that influence fluid balance, and specialized fluids like urine, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid. It provides details on urine composition, collection and analysis.
The document discusses renal function tests. It describes the key functions of the kidneys including homeostasis, waste excretion, retention of vital substances, and hormonal functions. It then explains the structure and function of nephrons, and discusses various tests used to evaluate renal function including urine examination, glomerular function tests like creatinine clearance, analysis of blood and serum, and tubular function tests. Creatinine clearance is described as a sensitive test to assess glomerular function by measuring the volume of plasma cleared of creatinine per minute.
This document discusses acute renal failure (ARF) and chronic renal failure (CRF). It defines ARF as the sudden failure of the kidneys to excrete water, electrolytes, and waste products. CRF develops over months or years as more nephrons lose function. Causes, symptoms, and treatments of both ARF and CRF are described. The document also provides an overview of renal function tests, which include analysis of urine, blood, and specialized clearance tests to evaluate kidney function and detect renal damage.
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13. Composition of urine
1-Water :95%.
2- Non protein nitrogenous compound 2.2%:
• Creatinine.
• Urea.
• Uuric acid.2.2%.
3-Dissolved salts and other ions as Na+, K+,H+,
Ca++,Cl-, phospate:2.8%
14.
15. Urine sample:
It must be analyzed within 1 hour of collection if held at
room temperature or else refrigerated at 2°–8°C for not
more than 8 hours before analysis.
The chemical changes which may occur in urine
specimens stored at room temperature include:
• Breakdown of urea to ammonia by bacteria, leading to
an increase in the pH of the urine. This may cause the
precipitation of calcium and phosphates.
• Destruction of glucose by bacteria.
• Precipitation of urate crystals in acidic urine. These
chemical changes can be slowed down by refrigerating
the urine at 2–8°C or adding preservatives.
20. Types of urine samples:
Morning
urine
sample:
24 hours
urine
sample
Mid-stream
urine
sample:
Random
urine
sample:
Urine is concentrated
Quantitative
for a culture
Not quantitative
Must stop
antibiotic 48
hrs. before
21. A) Physical examination of urine:
Volume:
Odor
Color
Specific gravity
Aspect (appearance):
Reaction (PH)
31. 2-Odor:
Odor interpretation
Aromatic =Uriniferous Normal urine odor
Ammoniacal On standing decomposition of urea by
bacteria ammonia
Acetone like odor = (fruity) • Diabetic ketoacidosis
• Starvation
Offensive Bacterial infection
Mousy Phenylketonuria (PKU) inherited disorder
with deficiency of phenyl alanine
hydroxlase
Caramelized Maple syrup disease inherited disorder of
metabolism of branched chain amino
acids(leucine-isolucine & valine)
32. 3-Color:
Color Interpretation
Amber yellow Normal urine color
Pale yellow • Very dilute urine
• Infants
• Diabetes mellitus (D.M.)
• Diabetes insipidus (D.I.)
• Increase fluid intake
Dark yellow • Fever
• Hyperthyroidism
• Dehydration
Light brown
(tae like color)
Jaundice
Red • trauma of urinary tract
• Porphyrinuria
Black Alkaptonuria
33. 4- Aspect=Appearance:
Normally, freshly urine transparent &clear.
Turbid urine:
• Pus =Pyuria.
• Red cells =hematuria
• Crystals (calcium phosphate or urate).
• Epithelial cells.
34. 5- Specific gravity:
• It is the density of urine compared with the density of distilled
water that is conveniently fixed as 1 at 20⁰ C.
• It measures the ability of the kidney to concentrate urine.
• It varies directly with the grams of solutes excreted in urine
and inversely with volume.
. Measured using Urinometer
36. Specific Gravity Interpretation
1.015 – 1.025 Normal urine
> 1.025 Physiologically:
Summer
First morning specimen.
Pathologically:
• Dehydration.
• Presence of glucose in urine (D.M.)
• Presence of protein in urine (Proteinuria).
• Shock.
• Heart failure.
<1.025 Physiologically:
High fluid intake.
Pathologically:
D.I.
37. 6-Reaction of urine(pH):
pH Interpretation
5 - 7 Normal urine
Alkaline
pH
• After meal.
• High citrus fruits and vegetables??.
• Bacterial colonization of urine
• Administration of certain drugs as sodium bicarbonate
• Metabolic and respiratory alkalosis
Acidic
pH
• High protein diet ????.
• Fever
• D.M.
• Metabolic and respiratory acidosis
38. B-Microscopic examination of urine:
Preparation of sample:
1- 5.0 ml fresh urine
2-Remove 4.9 ml supernatant fluid.
3-Place a drop of the sediment
4-microscope.
10 min - high speed
39. Constituents of the sediment:
Crystals
Casts
cells
Normally urine does not contain
• Red blood cells. N.R.=(0-2 RBCs/HPF).
• Pus cells. N.R.(0-2 WBCs/ HPF).
• Casts.(0-5 hyaline cast/LPF)
40. 1-Crystals:
According to the pHof urine we can classify the
crystals into:
Acidic urine:
• amorphous urate.
• uric acid.
• Na urate.
• calcium oxalate.
Alkaline urine:
• amorphous phosphate.
• calcium phosphate.
• triple phosphate.
• calcium carbonate.
• calcium oxalate.
ox
ph
urate Uric acid
41. 2-Cells:
In case of glomerulonephritis the urine
will contain red blood cells; pus cells
and casts (hyaline or granular casts).
42. 3-CASTS:
They are found in the lumen of the distal convoluted tubule
and collecting duct. They are the only elements found in the
urinary sediment that are unique to the kidneys.
43. C) Chemical examination of urine:
1-Proteins or Albumin: الزالل
Most proteins are too large to pass through
the glomeruli.
The glomeruli are negatively charged, so they
repel the negatively charged proteins.
when the glomeruli are damaged, proteins of
various sizes pass through them and appear
in the urine.
44. Appearance of proteins in urine is referred as
Proteinuria or Albuminuria which is a symptom of
Nephrotic syndrome (damage the
glomeruli capillary walls)
45. It is characterized by increased glomerular
permeability :
• Glomerulonephritis.
• toxins as gold .
• penicillamine.
Proteinuria results in decrease of serum albumin
concentration generalized edema.
46. 2- GLUCOSE:
Presence of more than the usual amount of glucose
in urine is called glucosuria.
a)A rise in blood glucose concentration
• Untreated diabetes mellitus.
• Glucose infusion.
b) rate of glucose reabsorption:
Tubular damage.
c) rate of glomerular filtration
During pregnancy.
48. 4-Blood:
Presence of blood in urine is called hematouria.
a)Infections as :
• Schistosoma haematobium.
• urinary tract infections (UTI).
b) Renal causes:
• Glomerulonephritis(Inflammation of the glomeruli) .
• Renal tract stones.
• Kidney tumours.
c) Toxins or drugs as
• Phenols.
• Cyclophosphamide.
49. 5- Bile salts (bile acids):
They are sodium and potassium salts of bile
acids that are metabolic end products of
cholesterol metabolism (e.g.: Taurocholic
acid, Glycocholic acid, Deoxycholic acid).
They act as surfactants and help in the
digestion and absorption of fats.
They are normally excreted in bile to the
intestine so they are normally absent in urine.
The presence of bile salts in urine confirms
the presence of obstructive jaundice.
50. 6-Bile pigments (bilirubin):
Bilirubin is the metabolic end product of
hemoglobin metabolism.
Normal urine is free of bilirubin.
Plasma and hence urinary levels of bilirubin
increase when there is a :
• Biliary obstruction jaundice
• Hepatitis
• Liver cirrhosis.
51. 7) Nitrite:
Normal urine does not contain nitrite.
Presence of nitrite in urine urinary tract infections
(caused by nitrate reducing-bacteria)
54. 1) PROTEIN:
This test is based on the color change of the indicator
tetrabromophenol blue. A positive reaction is indicated by
a color change from yellow through green and then to
greenish-blue.
tetrabromophenol blue
55. 2) GLUCOSE:
. First, glucose oxidase catalyzes the formation of gluconic acid
and hydrogen peroxide from the oxidation of glucose.
A second enzyme, peroxidase, catalyzes the reaction of
hydrogen peroxide with potassium iodide chromogen to oxidize
the chromogen to colors ranging from blue through
greenishbrown, and brown to dark-brown.
KI
peroxidase
glucose oxidase
gluconic acid
56. 3) KETONE BODIES:
This test is based on the reaction of acetoacetic acid in the urine with
nitroprusside. The resulting color ranges from tan when no reaction
takes place, to purple for a positive reaction. Normal urine specimens
ordinarily yield negative results with this reagent.
57. 4) BLOOD:
This test is based on the pseudoperoxidase activity of hemoglobin
which catalyzes the reaction of tetramethylbenzidine and buffered
organic peroxide. The resulting color ranges from, greenish-yellow
through bluish-green to dark blue.
58. 5) NITRITE:
This test is based on the reaction of p-arsanilic acid and nitrite in urine
to form a diazonium compound. The diazonium compound in turn
couples with N- (l-naphthyl) ethylenediamine in an acid
medium and the resulting color is pink. Any degree of pink color is
considered positive.
59. 6) UROBILINOGEN:
The test is based on a diazotisation reaction of 4-
Methoxybenzene diazoniurn salt and urinary urobilinogen in a
strong acid medium. The color changes from pink to brown-red.
60. 7) BILIRUBIN:
This test is based on the coupling of bilirubin with 2.4-dichlorobenzene
diazonium salt in a strong acid medium. The color changes from light
tan to pinkish-purple. No bilirubin is detectable in normal urine by even
the most sensitive methods.
Since the bilirubin in samples is sensitive to light, exposure of the urine
samples to light for a long period of time may result in a false negative
test result.
61. 8) LEUCOCYTES:
This test reveals the presence of granulocyte esterases. The esterases
cleave a derivatized pyrazole amino acid ester to liberate derivatized
hydroxy pyrazole. This pyrazole then reacts with a diazonium salt to
produce a purple color.
esterases
diazonium salt
62. 9) REACTION (PH)
This test is based on double indicators (methyl red and bromothymol
blue), which give a broad range of colors covering the entire urinary pH
range. Colors range from orange through greenish yellow and green
to blue. This test indicates the pH values within the range of 5 to 9.
63. 10) SPECIFIC GRAVITY
This test is based on the pka(dissociation constant)
change of certain pretreated polyelectrolytes in relation to the ionic
concentration. In the presence of an indicator, the color changes
from deep blue in urine of low ionic concentration.
64. 1) test for albumin (heat coagulation
test):
Proteins in urine are coagulated (denaturated)
by heat
Procedure:
1) To a clean dry test tube, add 5 ml of urine
sample.
2) To a second tube, add 5 ml distilled water.
3) Heat both tube in boiling water bath for 5
minutes
4) Note the formation of turbidity
65. 2) Test for glucose (Benedict’s test):
Procedure:
1) To a clean dry test tube, add 1 ml of urine
sample.
2) Add 1 ml of Benedict’s reagent.
3) Mix well and heat both tube in boiling water
bath for 5 minutes.
4) Note the formation yellow to orange-red color.
66. 3) test for ketone bodies (rothera test):
Procedure:
1) To a clean dry test tube, add 2 ml of
urine sample.
2) Supersaturate with ammonium sulphate
powder.
3) Add 1 ml of 2% sodium nitroprusside
solution and mix well.
4) Add conc. Ammonia dropwise on the
wall of tube.
5) Note the formation violet ring.
67. 4) test for bile salts (hay’s sulphur test):
Procedure:
1) To a clean dry test tube, add 2 ml of
urine sample.
2) To a second clean dry test tube, add 2
ml water.
3) Sprinkle a little of sulphur powder on
the surface.
4) Sulphur remains on the surface in
normal urine but sinks down in the
presence of bile salts