This document discusses urbanization trends in Sub-Saharan Africa and their impact on human security and sustainable development. It notes that while urban centers have existed for centuries, the rapid growth of urbanization in many developing countries has outstripped the provision of key services like housing, water, sanitation, education, health, employment, and transportation. This has resulted in various environmental, social, and economic problems associated with rapid urbanization, posing a threat to sustainable development and human security. The document provides background on concepts of urban crises, planning, and trends, and factors driving urbanization such as rural-to-urban migration due to poverty, lack of rural infrastructure and services, and availability of opportunities in cities.

1. URBAN CRISIS AND TRENDS IN SUB –AFRICAN COUNTRIES AND GLOBAL
COMPERATIVE: A THREAT TO HUMAN SECURITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT,
IN KENYA.
ABSTRACT
 urban centres existed and evolving for centuries across world, accelerated growth of
urbanisation in kenya is a relatively recent phenomenon.
 enormous size of urban populations and more significantly, rapid growth developing
countries have severe social, economic and physical repercussions.
 discussion argues accelerated growth of urbanisation has amplified demand for key services.
 BUY, provision of shelter and basic services ;water and sanitation, education, public health,
employment and transport has not kept pace with this increasing demand.
 furthermore, accelerated and poorly managed urbanisation resulted in various types of
atmospheric, land and water pollution thereby jeopardising human security.
 conclusion increased environmental, social and economic problems associated with rapid
urbanisation pose a threat to sustainable development, human security and, crucially, peace.

2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
 CONCEPTUALIZATIONS AND THEORETICALASPECTS OF
URBAN CRISISES, URBAN PLANNING AND TRENDS
 Urban development refers to ;social, cultural, economic and
physical development of cities, as well as underlying causes of these
processes.
 Cities and their development is a central topic in human geography,
and study of cities makes up sub-discipline of city geography or
urbanism.

3.  WHAT IS URBAN PLANNING?
 Technical and political process concerned with development and use of land,
protection , use of environment, public welfare, design urban environment,
 including air, water, infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such
as transportation, communications, and distribution networks.
 It also referred to as:
 urban and regional planning,
 regional planning, town planning,
 city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas
worldwide.
 It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban
design.

4.  WHAT DOES GOOD URBAN DEVELOPMENT MEAN TO
YOU?
 Urbanization offers a tremendous opportunity supporting growing
global population efficiently and humanely.
 Developing countries expected to build more new city-areas by 2030
(World Bank).
 China and India alone are expected to add 600 million new urban
residents by 2030
 The type of urban form these new cities, and new areas in existing
cities, strongly influence how and how long people travel in future.
Moreover, urban forms that are developed will be closely linked to
future of urban mobility.

5. Copenhagen, Denmark is often cited as a sustainable city. Photo of Copenhagen’s Central Station by
Frank Schmidt.

6.  DEFINING URBAN DEVELOPMENT
 The term “urban development”World Bank(2013) ‘Ideally, different perspectives – that of
health and safety, inclusion and equity, accessible services – .
 It also guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. predominantly
concerned with planning of settlements and communities.
 still responsible for planning and development of water use and resources, rural and
agricultural land, parks and conserving areas of natural environmental significance.
 Practitioners concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban
design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management.
 Urban planners work with cognate fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil
engineering, and public administration to achieve strategic, policy and sustainability goals.
Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields.
 Today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline,includes;land-use
planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning, and transportation
planning

7.  WHAT IS THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF URBAN PLANNING?
 evidence of urban planning and designed communities dates back to
Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan, and Egyptian civilizations in 3rd
millennium BCE.
 Archeologists studying ruins of cities found paved streets that were laid out at
right angles in a grid pattern. The idea evolved with civilizations . Beginning
8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal (or
grid-like) plans.
 The ancient Romans, inspired by Greeks, used orthogonal plans for their cities.
in Roman world idea developed for military defense and public convenience.
The spread of Empire subsequently spread ideas of urban planning.
 As Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many
cities in Europe still held onto planned Roman city center.

8.  Cities in Europe 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes
chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were newly built according to
preconceived plans, and many others were enlarged with newly planned
extensions.
 Most were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, with a peak-period at the
end of the 13th.
 From 15th century ,records of urban design and people involved, theoretical
treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear which theoretical
questions are addressed and designs of towns and cities are described and
depicted.
 During civilization, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to
redesign capital cities. During 2nd French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène
Haussmann, under direction of Napoleon III, redesigned city of Paris into a
more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards.

9.  Planning and architecture went a paradigm shift 20th century. The industrialized cities 19th
century grew at a tremendous rate. The pace and style was largely dictated by the concerns of
private business.
 The evils of urban life for the working poor were becoming increasingly evident as a matter
for public concern. The laissez-faire style of government management of the economy, in
fashion for most of Victorian era, was starting give way to a New Liberalism that championed
intervention on part of poor and disadvantaged.
 Around 1900, theorists began developing urban planning models to mitigate the consequences
of industrial age, by providing citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier
environments.
 Urban planning started to become professionalized during this time.
 The Town and Country Planning Association founded 1899 and first academic course on
urban planning was offered by University of Liverpool 1909.
 1920s, ideas of modernism and uniformity began to surface in urban planning, lasted until
1970s. Many planners started to believe ideas of modernism in urban planning led to higher
crime rates and social problems. Urban planners now focus more on individualism and
diversity in urban centers.

10.  WHAT IS THE THEORIES BEHIND URBAN PLANNING?
 Planning theory is the body of scientific concepts, definitions,
behavioral relationships, and assumptions that define the body of
knowledge of urban planning.
 There are eight procedural theories of planning :
 rational-comprehensive approach, incremental approach,
 transactive approach, communicative approach, the advocacy
approach,
 equity approach, radical approach,
 humanist or phenomenological approach.

11. 1. RATIONAL-COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH,
 process involving a number of rational actions or steps. Taylor (1998) outlines five steps:
A. Definition of the problems and/or goals;Identification of alternative plans/policies;
B. Evaluation of alternative plans/policies;Implementation of plans/policies;
C. Monitoring of effects of plans/policies,used in planning and designing neighborhoods, cities, and
regions.
 It has been central in the development of modern urban planning and transportation planning.
 THE MODEL HAS MANY LIMITATIONS,
 lack of guidance on involving stakeholders and community affected by planning,
 and other models of planning, such as collaborative planning,
 The very similar rational decision-making model, as it is called in organizational behavior, is a
process for making logically sound decisions. This multi-step model and aims to be logical and follow
rderly path from problem identification through solution.
 Rational decision making is a multi-step process for making logically sound decisions that aims to
follow orderly path from problem identification through solution.

12. 2.INCREMENTAL APPROACH,
 In politics, the term Incrementalism is also used as a synonym for Gradualism
 Incrementalism is a method of working by adding to a project using many
small incremental changes instead of a few (extensively planned) large jumps.
 Logical incrementalism implies that steps in process are sensible.Logical
Incrementalism focuses on "the Power-Behavioral Approach to planning rather
than to the Formal Systems Planning Approach."
 In public policy, incrementalism refers to method of change of many small
policy changes are enacted over time in order to create a larger broad based
policy change.
 This theoretical policy developed by Lindblom seen as a middle way
between rational actor model and bounded rationality, as both long term goal
driven policy rationality and satisficing were not seen as adequate

13. 3.TRANSACTIVE PLANNING
 alternative to comprehensive rational planning i.e model is based on communicative rationality
or based on human communication and dialogue between planners and people affected by
planning (Kinyashi 2006; Larsen 2003)
 CENTRAL ASSUMPTIONS
 There exist various interests within society.
 The interpersonal dialogue triggers a mutual learning process leading to an intensive
communication about measures
 ASSUMPTIONS AND ROLE OF THE PLANNER
 Planners act as supporters and participants among many (Mitchell 2002).
 Equipped with technical knowledge, communicative and group-psychological skills, planners
are able to reduce disparities between participants and reach consensus (Kinyashi 2006).
 Planners are centre of systematic knowledge; i.e mediate between different interests and

14.  CONTD….
 ROLE OF THE POPULATION
 The population bring a central contribution to planning process with their traditional knowledge and
experiences. They plan and steer actively (Kinyashi 2006).
 PLANNING PROCESS
 Planning is carried out decentrally. In an open atmosphere ,expertise of the planner and experimental
knowledge of population are combined and transformed into shared measures (Kinyashi 2006).
 The planning process is characterised by:
i. interpersonal dialogue and mutual learning (Mitchell 2002);
ii. a central focus on individual and organisatorial development (see capacity building) (Larsen 2003; Mitchell
2002);
iii. partnership building;
iv. incorporation of traditional knowledge (Mitchell 2002).
 Planning in this model is considered less as a scientific-technical activity than in comprehensive rational
planning model. In fact, considered as a ‘face-to-face’ interaction of planners and local population affected by
plans. Thus, planning is more a subjective endeavour than an objective process.

15. CRITICISM
a) Participation takes time which parts of the population do not have, especially the poorer ones. Their
interests may be ignored;
b) high participation costs;
c) Sometimes the population may not be prepared to plan for the long run and thereby to postpone
short-term satisfaction (Hostovsky 2007).

16.  4.COMMUNICATIVE PLANNING THEORY
 is a procedural planning theory which came to prominence in 1990s. (Jurgen Habermas) focuses on using
communication to help different interests in process understand each other.
 The idea is each individual will approach a conversation with his or her own subjective experience in mind and
that from conservation shared goals and possibilities will emerge.
 participation plays a central role under this model. Without the involvement of concerned interests there is no
planning.
 in economic realm, competence or fairness is thought to be solved by participation. Habermas has provided with
four precondition of communication which are: comprehensible, true, sincere and legitimate. In order to obtain
genuine communication.
 that planners have to be effective communicators and negotiators.
 Tore Sager “Communicative planning theory is an open and participatory enterprise involving a broad range of
affected groups in socially oriented and fairness-seeking developments of land, infrastructure, or public services
guided by a consensus building process designed to approach the principles of discourse ethics.”
 The main framework is to eliminate distortions, to foster open and authentic communication, to make true political
discourse and dialogue possible

17.  CRITICISMS IN COMMUNICATIVE PLANNING THEORY
 Jeng Tang contends there is a strong normative tendency and has inevitably faced criticisms,
ie.Habermassian thought tends to demonstrate a significant blindness to role of power
(Hillier, 1993:89 cf. Tang) theory focuses more on how planning should be or ought to be,
and what actions are wrong or right for planning.
 This normative tendency where the role of planner is subjected to that of the mediator. It is
not clear as to who holds the power of making the decision.,theory doesn’t make clear on
this very point.
 present a perfect intrinsic logic of limited people participate in the forum .
 Bengs (2005b:7) regards this mode of planning takes the economic interests of investors and
developers as point of departure, not as one particular issue among others to be modified and
balanced against public interest.

18.  WHY AND WHAT IS THE TECHNICAL ASPECT OF URBAN PLANNING?
 TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF URBAN PLANNING INVOLVE THE
 applying scientific, technical processes, considerations and features that are involved in
planning for land use, urban design, natural resources, transportation, and infrastructure.
 TECHNIQUES SUCH AS:
 predicting population growth,
 zoning, geographic mapping and analysis,
 analyzing park space, surveying the water supply,
 identifying transportation patterns, recognizing food supply demands,
 allocating healthcare and social services, and analyzing the impact of land use.

19.  WHY AND WHO IS URBAN PLANNER?
 a professional who works for purpose of optimizing effectiveness of a community's land
use and infrastructure.
 formulate plans for development and management of urban and suburban areas, analyzing
land use compatibility as well as economic, environmental and social trends.
 In developing plan for a community (whether commercial, residential, agricultural, natural
or recreational), planners must consider a wide array of issues ;
 sustainability, air pollution,
 traffic congestion, crime, land values, legislation and zoning codes.
 NOTE
 The importance increased 21st century, as modern society begun to face issues of increased
population growth, climate change and unsustainable development.
considered a green collar professional

20. INTRODUCTION
 In almost all countries, there has been a propensity towards concentration of growing
populations in moderately large cities. Within developing world cities are centres of growth and
governance,home to an increasing proportion of national population(UN,2004).
 policies encouraged establishment of large scale, capital-intensive industries in large cities.
policies related to agriculture, food subsidies and exchange rates have tended to keep food
prices low for urban consumers at expense of farmers (World Bank 1989).
 Largely due to policies, level of urbanisation increased dramatically to nearly 40% today. This
translates to urban population about 250 million in 2030 (UNPF 2007).
 For instance, Mozambique, Maputo accounts for 83% of the country’s urban population, while
for Dakar, Lome, Kampala and Harare are 65%, 60%, 52% and 50% respectively (World Bank
2002).
 Historically, in developed countries urbanisation usually accompanied industrialisation and
closely associated with rapid and sustained economic growth.
 In contrast, rapid urbanisation is taking place in an economic setting of negligible industrial
growth and transformation(UN 2003).

21. FACTORS AFFECTING URBANISATION
 Migration from rural areas accounts to 60% of the urban population and in exceptional cases,
as much as 75 % (Todaro 2000).
 RURAL-TO-URBAN MIGRATION CAUSES
1. poverty resulting from low agricultural productivity, aggravated by demographic growth,
prolonged drought or natural disasters exacerbates rural poverty .
2 .rural relatively under-served by physical, financial, social and economic infrastructure.
inadequate allocation of resources for operational expenses ,insufficient investment in
infrastructure, agriculture, schools and hospitals.
 The negative effects are exacerbated by government policies,state-controlled pricing and
marketing of agricultural products, push farmers and their families to cities.
 While urban may be under-served by essential services relative to inhabitants’ needs,provision
of infrastructure and social services is generally better there than rural .
 Consequently, relatively high concentration of social services and potential employment
opportunities in urban a, coupled with glamour of city life, are important factors attracting
rural people to cities.

22. TRENDS IN NUMBERS OF SLUM DWELLERS
 Continued urban expansion ,resulted in sustained urbanisation,population living
in urban rose from 46.6 % in 2000 to 50.6 % in 2010. same period urban
population of developing nations increased from 40.1% to 45.3% .
 The urban population of developing countries projected to reach 50.5% in 2020.
 Accessible data from developing regions, confirm, efforts to decrease urban
inequality and international community’s attempts towards accomplishing MDG
and associated targets given positive results.
 Regardless of increase in slum population from 767 million in 2000 to 828
million in 2010 (UN-HABITAT GUO data, 2010), proportion of urban
population in slums in developing regions declined from 39.3% to 32.7%
(see Table below).

23. Major region 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Developing countries 46.1 42.8 39.3 35.7 32.7
Africa 60.0 57.2 54.0 51.6 51.3
Northern Africa 34.4 28.3 20.3 13.4 13.3
Sub-Saharan Africa 70.0 67.6 65.0 63.0 61.7
Asia 47.3 43.3 39.1 34.9 30.6
Eastern Asia 43.7 40.6 37.4 33.0 28.2
Southern Asia 57.2 51.6 45.8 40.0 35.0
South-Eastern Asia 49.5 44.8 39.6 34.2 31.0
Western Asia 22.5 21.6 20.6 25.8 24.6
Latin America and the
Caribbean
33.7 31.5 29.2 25.5 23.5
Oceania 24.1 24.1 24.1 24.1 24.1

24.  Kenya’s urban average annual growth rate of 3.3% between 1990 and 2000, the highest in the world (Pieterse 2010). This
expansion of urban population has persisted at a rate that greatly exceeds the rate of creation of possibilities for gainful
employment for job seekers.
 Employment hard for unskilled rural migrants. Large school leavers of both rural and urban remain unemployed for years
after graduation. Unemployed find shelter with and depend on relatives.
 This impairs cities’ ability to meet service delivery needs. Others survive through informal economy (Obeng-Odoom 2011).
This growing group becomes part of the urban poor.
 Urban poverty has many dimensions and causes I.E psychological deprivation that’s street families and exclusion of both
material and amenties.
 One consequence of escalating urban poverty is the growing number of street children .
 The growth and development of informal or parallel economy inseparable of urbanisation . estimates are informal economy
and opportunity it provides for employment will grow at an annual rate of 7% whereas jobs of formal economy likely to
increase at a rate of 2% to 3% per year (Todaro 2000).
 The informal economy employs 60% of urban workforce in Kenya, but accounts for less than ¼ of urban economic growth
output.
 formal economy include: ease of entry, reliance on indigenous resources, individual or family ownership of enterprises,
small-scale operation, The growth and development of informal or parallel economy has become an inseparable part of
urbanisation in Kenya today.

25. RISING CRIME AND HUMAN INSECURITY
 Cities plagued by both random and organised criminal operations, and
Kenya is no exception. Ensuring public security and enforcing rule of law is
key challenges facing urban governance African countries(Kessides 2005).
 general problems of poverty and social exclusion within urban ,extreme
weaknesses of national police and justice systems,
 absence of trust communities and local governments compound challenge
of increasing insecurity and emerging of criminal gangs i.e graduated to
drug trafficking and money laundering.
 growing threat of armed robbery and the inability of police to provide
adequate protection, relatively well-to-do individuals and many businesses
are engaging private security firms.

26. INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICES
 Amidst widespread threat of crime, many urban poor are forced to live in situations of
extreme human insecurity, sheltered in informal settlements /shortage of affordable
housing
 In theory, concentration of urban settlements should make it more economical and
feasible to provide all these essential services.
 BUT due to financial limitations and capacity constraints,cities are incapable of
providing basic services to citizens. In general, lack of adequate infrastructure ranks
high as basic impediments to economic growth in Kenya (United Nations 2014).
 The high rate of growth of urban settlements has consequences for social services such
as education, health and care for the poor and elderly. In many countries, governments
have been unable to cope with demand for social services.
 Governments had to face a new and additional burden, the social and economic
consequences of the HIV-AIDS epidemic/infection (Heinecken 2001).

27. PROSPECTS AND OPPORTUNITIES
 There exist many opportunities for countries to strengthen service delivery and thereby
redress the challenge of human insecurity.
 By tackling housing challenges, unemployment and water and sanitation issues – while
boosting infrastructural development – they can neutralise threats to their citizens’ human
security and positively affect urban-rural links.
 DEVELOPING EMPLOYMENT OPTIONS
 High rates of unemployment and limited economic opportunities have created a potentially
explosive social problem in many cities,particularly high levels of youth unemployment
(Eguavoen 2010).
 It is therefore incumbent on governments to create an enabling environment for private
enterprise and investment.
 National and local policies have a significant impact in this regard. Its difficult for enterprises
be competitive if transport costs are high, if corruption and bureaucratic inefficiencies result
in delays and higher costs and if services are unreliable.

28.  IMPROVING URBAN FACILITIES
 In principle, fundamental and essential social services should be available to all. BUT in reality lack of jobs or
income explains the exclusion of many poor urban dwellers from urban facilities like clinics, schools and public
housing. Furthermore, dissatisfied customers of utilities are reluctant to pay user charges, and may feel justified in
evading municipal levies and taxes.
 The private sector is unlikely to invest or expand its operations under such conditions. This erodes the tax base, in
turn means governments , insufficient funds to maintain or upgrade existing facilities (World Bank 2011).
 One crucial issue is provision of public services in slums and illegal housing areas. At times such settlements are
permitted by governments, authorities fail to provide services and policy changes have led to radical
improvements.
 In long term, adequacy of services and infrastructure likely be significant factors in prosperity, as well as livability
of cities. lack resources to upgrade infrastructure. Oftentimes, poor planning and lack of innovation confound
these challenges.
 A lack of long-term, city-wide planning often results in piecemeal and ad hoc interventions as well as substantial
disparities in terms of service provision within cities.
 long-term strategy helps provide adequate service in a cost-effective manner, resulting to advantage of economies
of scale and existing networks. It helps balance environmental degradation evident in cities; results from lack of
planning or adherence to regulatory standards.
 To help reduce urban poverty, it is important consideration given to improving access to basic services within

29.  STRENGTHENING RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES
 Maximising positive aspects of urbanisation and minimizing negative requires strategic planning and
management at top level, supported by effective systems for collection of data and information. BUT, depends on
coherence of policies and promotion of synergies in urban -rural within a broad development framework.
 This include strategies to support the growth of small towns and secondary cities, complementing trend toward
decentralisation. (Turok and Parnell 2009).
 Secondary cities have potential to strengthen rural-urban linkages, retain young talent. They serve as markets,
storage and processing centres, and supply points for improved agricultural technologies and essential farm
inputs or consumer goods.
 While every country is different,experience from recent past in countries suggests economic development of rural
largely dependent on both diversity of rural-urban linkages and extent which they are exploited. Reliable and
varied flows of people, trade and resources have proven beneficial.
 The improvement of transport and communications networks ,development of small towns and secondary cities
provide accessible markets for agricultural produce serve to strengthen rural economies and help to boost rural-
urban linkages.

30. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE OF CERTAIN INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN
PLANNING
 CASE INDIA:5 KEY INDICATORS;
 Indian cities are urbanizing at an unprecedented scale and pace,next few decades,
population is expected to increase significantly, from 377 million in 2011 to 590 million by
2030.
 The problem ,country’s existing urban transport infrastructure is already over-capacity. This
fact — coupled with high rate of traffic fatalities, air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions, congestion, and urban sprawl — has created urgency to improve quality of life in
cities for future generations.
 Against this backdrop, (EMBARQ)WRI’s Center for Sustainable Transport in India—in
collaboration with Brihanmumbai Electrical Supply and Transport Undertaking (BEST)—
held its first annual CONNECTKaro conference 2012. The theme was two-fold:
i. to “CONNECT” sustainable urban transport to urban development,
ii. “Karo,” a Hindi word meaning to “do it” — to make it happen. Scaling sustainable
transport and integrating it with land-use development is essential dynamic engines of
economic growth, whilst providing a high quality of life for residents.

31.  1. BUS RAPID TRANSIT IS HERE TO STAY
 expansion of bus rapid transit (BRT) systems in Indian cities. Janmarg in Ahmedabad,first fully
fledged BRT launched in 2009, will expand its network from 62 kilometers to 88 kilometers.
 2. TRANSIT-ORIENTED-DEVELOPMENT IS THE “NEXT BIG THING”
 While scaling-up BRT systems encouraging development, increasing supply of mass transport will
not be enough. The integration of land use and transportation also essential. Transit-Oriented-
Development (TOD) viewed as big solution that will connect sustainable transport to sustainable
urban development in India.
 3. CITY BUS SYSTEMS WILL REMAIN THE BACKBONE OF URBAN TRANSPORT
 City bus services primarly mode of public transport for ndia’s citizens. In major metropolises like
Delhi and Bangalore, buses are 40 %of all motorized trips. For medium and smaller-sized cities,
buses will be cost-effective mode of public transport.
 Improving the scale and quality of city buses, then, should be central to city’s strategy to promote
public transport over private vehicle use. Significant efforts been toward this goal (Krishna, 2009)

32.  4. PEDESTRIANS AND CYCLISTS MUST BE AT THE CORE OF URBAN AND
TRANSPORT PLANNING
 yearly,130,000 deaths a result of traffic accidents — 1/10th of global total. If trends
continue, traffic crashes will be 1/5th leading cause of all age groups by 2030, surpassing
diseases ; tuberculosis and AIDS.
 The most vulnerable road users are pedestrians and cyclists.
 5. ENGAGEMENT WITH THE PRIVATE SECTOR IS CRITICAL
 A final key message from conference focused on tremendous opportunity to shift private
sector investments toward sustainable outcomes.
 A recent study indicated India needs U.S. $871 billion infrastructure investments 20 years.
Of this,U.S. $500 billion needed for transport infrastructure alone. Given fiscal constraints
in public sector, a majority of this money expected to originate from private investors.

33. a brighter future for India’s cities

34. THE ROLE OF PRIVATE DEVELOPERS IN
SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY
 Rapid urbanization in India is raising people’s incomes, creating huge demand for housing, and increasing
vehicle ownership rates in upper-middle and middle classes.
 By 2030, 50% population expected to live in cities, and in turn create a huge demand for housing.
 To cater for housing demand, private real estate developers are building large gated residential
communities.primarily located in peripheral areas of city where land is cheaper, but supporting public
infrastructure is often severely limited.
 strong evidence of interaction of transport patterns and urban form can be cyclical, i.e more car-oriented urban
development in locations farther from city fosters increased vehicle ownership.
 This requires land to accommodate increased infrastructure requirements for private vehicles. To address this
need, developers construct more residential communities in peripheral locations. The design of new
developments, therefore, risks creating and perpetuating residential communities’ dependence on private
vehicles.
 Household surveys conducted by EMBARQ India in Bangalore show that in comparison to the rest of the
city – where 6% of people drive cars – roughly 63% of those living in these gated communities drive.

37. REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF URBAN PLANNING TRENDS; CASE OF SOUTH
AFRICA: FIVE TRENDS IN AFRICA’S RAPID URBANIZATION
 South Africa is at an advanced stage of urbanization, but Johannesburg still world's most unequal cities.Cities are
growing fast. But trend lines and context of growth vary widely across the continent.
1. THE STATE OF URBANIZATION VARIES WIDELY BY COUNTRY
 Africa as a whole is urbanizing rapidly: From 1950 to today, share of urban residents rose from 14% to 40 %, and
expected to reach 50% by the mid-2030s.
 But pace and shape of trend looks very differently. Those 5 TRENDS include:
a) Diversifiers (Egypt, South Africa and Tunisia) are at most advanced stage of each process
b) Agrarians (Chad, Niger and Malawi) are at an early stage in each.
c) Early urbanizers (Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Senegal), while not showing a lot of progress in their structural
transformation, are generally more urbanized and have lower fertility ratios.
d) Late urbanizers (Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania) begun urbanizing but still predominantly rural with high fertility
ratios and generally low income levels.
e) Natural resources-based countries (Congo, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe) generally more urbanized, particularly around a
single prime city. Fertility rates remain generally high and income levels vary widely depending what natural resources
they produce.
NOTE
 biggest drivers of urbanization is growth of towns and intermediate cities. That trend expected to continue. Meanwhile,
Cote d’Ivoire, Mali and Zambia, have actually seen drops in the urban share of their populations.

38. 2.STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION IS NOT KEEPING PACE WITH URBANIZATION
 Historically, there’s been a link between urbanization and structural transformation;
the emergence of cities brings a rise in incomes and living standards.
 In some places, urbanization is becoming synonymous with overcrowded informal
settlements, congestion, overloaded infrastructure and high costs of living.
 Many states failed to industrialize as they urbanize, especially within sub-Saharan
Africa. This may not be permanent, however, cities have power to promote
industrialization that creates demand for products and facilitate innovation.
 cites rising productivity in agriculture, services-led growth and increasing amounts
of FDIs as catalysts for increasing structural transformation.
 For example, FDIs can help develop local businesses and bring knowledge and
technology transfer that supports economic growth

39. 3.AFRICAN CITIES HAVE HIGH RATES OF POVERTY AND INEQUALITY
 Poverty is an enormous problem in African cities, 62% of sub-Saharan Africa’s urban population lives in
slums.
 challenges, health risks due to poor living conditions and overcrowding, livelihood risks from vulnerable
employment, external shocks from events such as natural disasters that disproportionately affect them, and
governance risks as they do not receive adequate policy attention.
4.THE EXPANSION OF THE MIDDLE CLASS DRIVES SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC GROWTH
 The majority of Africa’s middle class lives in cities,having a consumption worth US$4-20 per day.
 main reasons why an emerging middle class can contribute to growth.
i. people with more income are more inclined to pursue entrepreneurial activities that may create
employment and productivity growth.
ii. those who do not become entrepreneurs can provide labor or investment for those who do.
iii. a growing middle class means a growing demand for consumer goods. That alone could push consumer
spending in Africa from about US$860 billion in 2008 to US$1.4 trillion in 2020.
5.CLIMATE CHANGE IS A MAJOR THREAT
 Africa has contributed relatively little to world’s greenhouse-gas emissions. Nevertheless, its cities will
disproportionately feel impacts of a changing climate. The flooding, changing rain patterns and extreme heat
waves may leave most African countries poorer in 2100 than they are today.

40. CONCLUSION
1.Redressing the political, social and economic problems posed by speedy urbanisation is one of the most pressing
governance challenges confronting African governments today.
 The prevalence of urban poverty and deprivation, sharply contrasted with relative wealth, have created a potentially
volatile situation, which if left unattended could result in insecurity and even lead to political upheaval.
 People migrate to urban centres hoping to secure a better future for themselves and their families. Governments
have an obligation to create policies that permit them to accomplish this goal.
2.However, recent democratisation and improved communication capabilities have presented most African governments
with a fresh opportunity to tackle these challenges in partnership with civil society.
 In addition, urbanisation presents economic and political opportunities for national development. In the struggle to
improve service provision, citizens employ participatory strategies as they establish community structures or elected
bodies.
 This process also fosters citizen engagement in national politics more generally, advancing popular political
awareness and the institutionalisation of democratic culture. With a suitable political milieu, the economic potential
of urbanisation can provide a foundation for national growth and prosperity towards the creation of vibrant and
affluent cities in Africa, and beyond.
3. African countries can assimilate tactics from other regions in quest to transform urbanisation they are experiencing
from an unbridled phenomenon to centrepiece in development initiatives today. Accordingly, if pragmatic efforts are
made to effectively manage urbanisation, African cities will be both sustainable and able to provide human security to
their citizens.