The document discusses theories of urbanization and the history of urbanization. It provides the following key points: 1) Cities first emerged around 6,000 years ago in Mesopotamia, with the earliest large cities being in China in the 13th century. Until the 19th century, urban populations remained low globally at less than 3% of the total population. 2) Major urbanization began during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, driven by industrialization and rural-urban migration for work. By 1950, about 25% of the global population lived in urban areas, concentrated in Europe, North America, and Australia. 3) Since the late 20th century, developing countries have urban

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DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT AND LOGISTIES
ARMY UNIVERSITY BIU
TLM 319
CITIES STRUCTURE AND LAND USE PLANNING
Introduction
Cities are the central elements in spatial organization of regional, national, and supranational
socioeconomics’ by virtue of the interregional organization in a total "ecological field" of the
functions they perform. Cities are not simply random collections of buildings and people, they
exhibit functional structure which are spatially organized to perform their functions as places
of commerce, production, education, and much more. One of the most important forces
determining where certain buildings or activities are located within a city deals with the price
of land.
City structure is comprised of three elements:
 Space; is the underlying topography, the natural features and landscape of an area.
Space influences the look and character of the districts and neighbourhoods, the parks
and open spaces that exist upon the land base.
 Movement: is the system of roads, sidewalks, cycling lanes and pathways as well as
the transportation infrastructure and services they accommodate.
 Building form is the range of building types, as defined by their physical scale, mass,
orientation and height, within an area. The interplay between building forms is what
creates spaces, defines streets and influences a city’s skyline.
The city structure provides the foundation for the detailed design and planning of each element.
It provides a framework to guide and influence the development of individual buildings, spaces
or infrastructure. This Plan provides policies to ensure that the urban structure is well-planned
and is able to provide the foundation for a lovable urban community and a community that
provides:
 A range of housing options
 Services that meet people’s daily needs
 Transportation systems that connect neighbourhoods, parks and open spaces, other
areas of the city and the broader region; and

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 High quality and well-maintained public realm and private realm.
LAND USE PLANNING
Land use planning is the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for
land use and economic and social conditions, in order to select and adopt the best land use
options. Its purpose is to select and put into practice those land uses that will best meet the
needs of the people while safeguarding resources for the future.
TYPES OF LAND USE PLANNING
 Spatial land use planning
 Integrated land use planning
 Participatory land use planning
 Regional land use planning
 Ecological land use planning
SPATIAL LAND USE PLANNING
The spatial land use planning gives geographical expression to the economic, social, cultural
and ecological policies of society. It is, at the same time, a scientific discipline, an
administrative technique and a policy developed as an interdisciplinary and comprehensive
approach directed towards balanced regional development, and the physical organization of
space, according to an overall strategy.
INTEGRATED LAND USE PLANNING
It is the process of assesses and assigns the use of resources, taking into account different uses,
and demands from different users, including all agricultural sectors - pastoral, crop and forests
- as well as industry and other interested parties.
PARTICIPATORY LAND USE PLANNING
It is set for planning of communal or common property land, that is important in many
communities where communal lands are the most seriously degraded, and where conflicts over
land use rights exist. Arrangements can be regulated through negotiation among stakeholders,
and communally binding rules based on planning units. Social units (e.g., village) or
geographical units (e.g., watershed) can be adopted. The people-centered, bottom-up approach
recognizing differences that exist from place to place, with respect to socio-cultural, economic,
technological and environmental conditions.

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REGIONAL LAND USE PLANNING
It is a process of territorial development designed to facilitate the elaboration of a general
spatial concept and land use priorities, determination of environment and monument protection
conditions, formation of a system of residential, productive and infrastructural areas, regulation
of employment of the population, while reserving the territories requisite for the activity
expansion of private and legal entities. Integral planning is used to determine policies of spatial
development of a given territory, priorities of territory use, protection and basic principles of
management.
ECOLOGICAL LAND USE PLANNING
It is an environmental policy instrument to regulate land use and productive activities, to protect
the environment, promote the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources,
considering land use potential and land degradation trends. It is considered the most appropriate
policy instrument to harmonize human activities and environmental sustainability in the short,
medium and long term.
URBANIZATION
By definition, urbanization refers to the process by which rural areas become urbanized as a
result of economic development and industrialization. Demographically, the term urbanization
denotes the redistribution of populations from rural to urban settlements over time. However,
it is important to acknowledge that the criteria for defining what is urban may vary from country
to country, which cautions us against a strict comparison of urbanization cross-nationally. The
fundamental difference between urban and rural is that urban populations live in larger, denser,
and more heterogeneous cities as opposed to small, more sparse and less differentiated rural
places.
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase
in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to
this change. It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become
larger as more people begin living and working in central area.
HISTORY OF URBANIZATION
Basically, to locate the origin of urbanization today, we go back in time to identity the earliest
form of urban life as beginning in the Middle and Near East, near what is today known as Iraq

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of around 3,500 BC. In other words, the oldest urban communities known in history began
approximately 6,000 years ago and later emerged with the Maya culture in Mexico and in the
river basins of China and India. By as early as the thirteenth century, the largest cities in the
world were the Chinese cities of Chang’an (Xi’an today) and Hangzhou, which had over one
million people, a and London didn’t reach one million people until the 1700s. However, until
the nineteenth century, constrained by the limits of food supply and the nature of transportation,
both the size and share of the world’s urban population remained very low, with less than three
percent of the world’s population living in urban places around 1800.
In sparse and often ambiguous archaeological and historical record, indicates that the urban
population fluctuated between four and seven percent of total population from the beginning
of the Christian era until about 1850. In that year, out of a world population of between 1.2 and
1.3 billion persons, about 80 million or 6.5 percent lived in urban places. While 80 million was
a large number then, they were dispersed over hundreds of urban places worldwide. In 1850,
only three cities, London, Beijing, and Paris, had more than a million inhabitants; perhaps 110
cities had more than 100,000 inhabitants, and the 25 largest cities then, 11 were in Europe,
eight in East Asia, four in South Asia, and only two in North America.
During the century 1850-1950, there was, for the first time in human history, a major shift in
the urban/rural balance. In this classic work, The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century,
provided a historical account for the limited level of urbanization at the global scale. Only three
regions in Great Britain, North-West Europe, and the USA were more than 20 percent urban in
1890. Urbanization in the first half of the twentieth century occurred most rapidly and
extensively in Europe, the Americas, and Australia. The number of large cities (city has more
than 100,000 inhabitants) in the world increased to 946, and the largest city, New York had a
population of 2.3 million in 1950, while urbanization proceeded very slowly in much of the
rest of the world. Although only a quarter of the world’s total population lived in urban places
in 1950, urbanization in the developed countries had largely reached its peak.
The acceleration of world urbanization since 1850 partly reflects a corresponding acceleration
of world population growth; but urbanization is not merely an increase in the average density
of human settlement. For example, in 1960, nearly all less urbanized regions of the world had
low rates of rural out-migration under 1 percent annually and high rates of urban immigration
1.5 to 3.2 percent annually. With a few exceptions, urban and rural rates of natural increases
were about the same, yet urban growth rates were two to five time above rural growth rates,

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reflecting the strong effect of rural-to-urban migration in regions with relatively small urban
sectors.
The urbanization of the developing world began to accelerate in late twentieth century,
although there was no clear trend in overall urban growth in less developed countries due to
inconsistent definition of urban and the lack of quality in their census data. According to the
United Nations, the levels of urbanization in 1995 were high across the Americas, most of
Europe, parts of western Asia and Australia. South America was the most urban continent with
the population in all but one of its countries (Guyana) being more urban than rural. More than
80 percent of the population lived in towns and cities in Venezuela, Uruguay, Chile and
Argentina.
Then levelss of urban development were low throughout most of Africa, South and East Asia,
because less than one person in three sub-Saharan Africa was an urban dweller. The figure was
below 20 percent in Ethiopia, Malawi, Uganda, Burkina Faso, Rwanda and Burundi. An
estimated 40 percent of China’s 1.2 billion people and 29 percent of India’s 0.96 billion lived
in cities and towns. The Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan was reckoned to be the world’s most
rural sovereign state, with only six percent of its population living in urban places.
CAUSES OF URBANIZATION
 Industrialization: Industrialization is a major cause of urbanization. It has expanded
the employment opportunities and rural people have migrated to cities on account of
better employment opportunities.
 Social Factors: Many social factors such as attraction of cities, better standard of living,
better educational facilities, need for status also induce people to migrate to cities.
 Employment Opportunities: In rural sector people have to depend mainly on
agriculture for their livelihood. But Indian agriculture is depending on monsoon. In
drought situations or natural calamities, rural people have to migrate to cities.
 Modernization: Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated technology better
infrastructure, communication, medical facilities, etc. People feel that they can lead a
comfortable life in cities and migrate to cities.
 Proper Infrastructure and Utilities: As been mentioned before, most countries all
over the world are focusing on the development of major cities as the centre of
government and business. As such, the cities will be definitely equipped with a better
infrastructure and utilities such as roads and transportation, water, electricity and others.

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URBANIZATION PROBLEMS
Economic Effects: The most striking immediate change accompanying urbanisation is the
rapid change in the prevailing character of local livelihoods as agriculture or more traditional
local services and small-scale industry give way to modern industry and urban and related
commerce, with the city drawing on the resources of an ever-widening area for its own
sustenance and goods to be traded or process.
Ecological and Environmental Effects: A major issue facing large cities is the disposal of the
ever-growing volume of waste which accompanies increased affluence and reliance on
purchased goods. Apart from the unsightliness of disposal sites, harmful synthetic materials in
packaging, household appliances or machinery may threaten neighbouring rural areas or water
sources.
Housing Problems: Urbanization attracts people to cities and towns which lead to high
population increase. With the increase in the number of people living in urban centres, there is
continued scarcity of houses. This is due to insufficient expansion space for housing and public
utilities, poverty, unemployment, and costly building materials which can only be afforded by
few individuals.
Overcrowding: Overcrowding is a situation whereby a huge number of people live in a small
space. This form of congestion in urban areas is consistent because of overpopulation and it is
an aspect that increases day by day as more people and immigrants move into cities and towns
in search of better life.
Development of Slums: The cost of living in urban areas is very high. When this is combined
with random and unexpected growth as well as unemployment, there is the spread of unlawful
resident settlements represented by slums and squatters. The growth of slums and squatters in
urban areas is even further exacerbated by fast-paced industrialization, lack of developed land
for housing, large influx of rural immigrants to the cities in search of better life, and the elevated
prices of land beyond the reach of the urban poor.
Traffic Congestion: When more people move to towns and cities, one of the major challenges
posed is in the transport system. More people mean increased number of vehicles which leads
to traffic congestion and vehicular pollution. Many people in urban areas drive to work and
this creates a severe traffic problem, especially during the rush hours. Also, as the cities grow

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in dimension, people will move to shop and access other social needs/wants which often cause
traffic congestion and blockage.
THEORIES OF URBANIZTION
Self-generated or Endogenous Urbanization Theory; This theory suggests that urbanization
requires two separate prerequisites, the generation of surplus products that sustain people in
non-agricultural activities, and the achievement of a level of social development that allows
large communities to be socially viable and stable. From a long temporal perspective, these
changes took place simultaneously in the Neolithic period when the first cities emerged in the
Middle East as mentioned earlier. A much later period in which these two preconditions
interacted strongly was the late eighteenth century when the rise of industrial capitalism led to
the emergence of urban societies in Great Britain, North-West Europe and North America.
In a demographic sense, this theory focuses on the rural-urban population shift as the
foundation of urbanization but it identifies industrialization as the basic driver behind the
movement of rural population to urban areas for factory jobs. The historical evidence
undoubtedly bears this out. Before the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, no society could
be described as urban or urbanized. And all countries, primarily in the West, that began to
industrialize rapidly after Great Britain became highly urbanized by the mid-twentieth century,
which was followed by accelerated industrialization and then urbanization in the rest of the
world through the last century and into the present.
Modernization Theory; This second theory on urbanization actually emerged from a broader
theoretical school known as the modernization theory that became prevalent and influential
from the 1950s through the 1970s. While overlapping with the first theory in the timing of
development, modernization theory had a wider set of assumptions and scope of influence.
Looking at urbanization through the lens of modernization, first, the present state of
urbanization in any given society is set by its initial state at the onset of modernizatio n.
Secondly, technology is fundamentally more important than a society’s social organization in
shaping urbanization. Finally, the path and pattern of urbanization within and between
developed and developing countries are most likely to converge through cultural diffusion,
despite breeding inevitable social disequilibria. We could trace the intellectual underpinning of
the modernization view on urbanization in developing countries to an even earlier theoretical
paradigm, namely, human ecology. While developed to describe the structure and evolution of
the American city, primarily Chicago in the 1920s-1930s by Robert Park and others, human

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ecology is based on strong assumptions about the interactive role of population dynamics,
market competition, material technology (e.g., transport infrastructure), and the built
environment in making and remaking urban life. These assumptions became the predictive
elements in how modernization theory would view subsequent developing-country
urbanization as being driven by industrialization, technological progress, information
penetration, and cultural diffusion. This optimistic prospective view was very developmentalist
in heralding the more positive outcomes of accelerated urbanization in the developing world,
but only to be challenged by the more depressing reality of economic and spatial inequalities,
as well as other social problems from urbanization in poor countries.
As modernization theory failed to account for both the conditions and consequences of
urbanization in developing countries, it opened the door to a compelling theoretical alternative,
the dependency world-system perspective on urbanization.
Dependency World-System Theory; The dependency world-system theory links recent
changes in the roles and organizations of the economies of developing countries to the growth
and extension of capitalism in the capitalism world system. From this world-systemic
perspective, urbanization can be seen as an internal locational response to global economy.
First, dependency theorists assume that a uniquely capitalist development pattern exists,
asserting that capitalism is a unique form of social organization. Second, capitalism requires a
certain social structure, which is characterized by unequal exchange, uneven development,
individual social inequality, core-periphery hierarchies, and dominance structure. Finally,
dependency theory models social organization, technology and population dynamics as
endogenous factors in development and urbanization that are constrained by exogenous forces.
The spread of capitalism to and its entrenchment in the developing world is the most recent
stage in the development of capitalism as a world economic system. It is a result of changes in
the ways in which wealth is accumulated, and the evolution of the world-system of nations.
Dependency theory also suggests that underdevelopment is a result of the plunder and
exploitation of peripheral economies by economic and political groups in core areas.
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANIZATION
 Structured Facilities: In any urban centre, structures are designed majorly for the
following purposes with their respective proportions: Residential- 60.0%; Industrial-
4.0%; Commercial- 2.0%, Roads -18.0%; Administration- 4.0%; Recreational -10.0%;
Others -2.0%; Total-100.0%.

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 Residential: Residential sector occupies the highest percentage of land use in any
urban settlement. Since residential land use sectors are centres of population
concentration, they witness mass criss-cross movements of human and vehicular traffic
during working days of the week.
 Employment Centre - Industry, Commercial and Administration: The energy of any
community is found in the industrial, commercial and administrative sectors. These are
centre for great employment.
 Communication Network: Network of communication linkages ties the structure of
urban areas together as a system.
 Roads: Efficient network of roads and transportation system enhance free flow and
efficiency of human and vehicular movements. Narrow/irregular street pattern brings
chaos and congestion. Wide road reservation with enough setbacks provides space for
adequate lanes and installation of infrastructures.
 Infrastructural Facilities: Infrastructure facilities like water supply, electricity,
telephone and solid waste disposal etc. are common in urban centre.
 Size: As a rule, in the same country and at the same period, the size of an urban
community is much large than that of a rural community. Hence, urbanization and its
size are positively correlated.
 Density Of Population: Density of population in urban areas is greater than in rural
communities. Urbanization and its density are positively correlated.
 Family: So far as urban community is concerned, greater importance is attached to the
individual than to the family. Nuclear families are more popular in urban areas.
 Marriage: In case of urban community there is a preponderance of love marriages and
inter-caste marriages. One also comes across a greater number of divorces.
 Occupation: In the urban areas, the major occupations are industrial, administrative
and professional in nature. Divisions of labor and occupational specialization are very
much common in town’s cities metropolises.

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 Class Extremes: An urban town and city house the richest as well As the poorest of
people. In a city, the slums of the poor exist alongside the palatial bungalows of the
rich, amidst the apartments of the middle-class members.
 Social Heterogeneity: Villages are considered homogeneity; also, urban will be
heterogeneity. The cities are characterized by diverse peoples, race and cultures. There
is great variety in regard to the food habits, dress habits, living conditions, religious
beliefs, cultural, customs and traditions of the urbanites.
 Social Distance: Social distance is the result of anonymity and heterogeneity. Most
social contacts in a town or city are impersonal and segmentary in character.
 System Of Interaction: The social structure of urban communities is based interest
groups. The circles of social contact are wider in the city than in the country. City life
is very complex and varied. Due to wider area of interaction system per man and per
aggregate.
 Mobility: Urbanization is full of great social mobility. The social status of man in urban
city depends largelity y on his merit, intelligence and perseverance. Consequently,
urbanization and mobility are positive correlated.
URBAN INTERACTION
Basically, urban interactions are the ways in which public space is constructed, made available,
and governed. The city provides a challenging context for interaction design through the
involvements of all scales, from the embedded sensor, to the interactive media facade, to the
mobile networks distributed throughout the urban landscape.
It explores the design processes involved, the designs and interfaces, and the life used that play
in urban space. While media architecture focuses primarily on the built environment, and the
urban interactions tend to highlight the complex situations in multi-functional spaces, which
the situations combined public and private spaces, multi- stakeholder involvement, civic life
and commercial activities.
Types of Urban Area
An urban area, or built-up area is a human settlement with high population density and
infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are
categories by urban morphology as;

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 Cities
 Towns
 Conurbations or Suburb
City Public and Private Space
Among city buildings, there is a network of spaces that create and strengthen connection at
different levels of influence which fill the urban gaps with life, and relationship that are directly
associated with the construction of what is called city and the influence that is created within
them.
Public Space: are places of encounter or an environment for interaction and exchange of ideas
that can impact the quality of urban environmentally. Eg, open public space such as parks,
Beaches, and other natural spaces, pavements or squares and closed public spaces such as
libraries, museums, or religious, spiritual and heritage sites. A good public space is the one
that reflects diversity and encourages people to live together effortlessly, creation the necessary
conditions for permanent, which invite people to be on the street. It also presents health
benefits, both physical and mental, and people feel much better and tend to be more attractive.
Private Space: it may be described or considered to be a space that is owned and maintain by
a single individual, family or an institution.
Element of City Public Area or Space
 Diversity of uses; Blending residential, office and commercial areas, such as bars,
restaurants, cafes, and local commerce, attracts people and make the environment safer
and friendly.
 Active facades; Connection between the ground level of buildings, the sidewalk and
the street contribute to safety and the attractive of urban design.
 Social dimension and urban vitality; Public space has influence over the social
dimension, eg wide, accessible streets, squares, parks, sidewalks, bike paths, and urban
furniture stimulate interaction between people and the environment, which generate a
positive use of space and increase urban vitality.
 Human scale; High scale, high density construction can negatively affect people’s
health, because its people tend to walk more faster in an open space than more compact
space. Human scale construction has a positive impact on people’s perceptions of public
space, believing or feel they were considered in the planning process of the space.

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 Lighting; Efficient and people-oriented lighting facilitate the occupancy of public
spaces at night, enhancing safety.
 Stimulating the local economic; Quality public space not benefit people by offering
leisure and living areas, but they also have the potential boost on local economy.
 Local identity; Public space should be planned for the small businesses that
characterize the neighborhood because it has a long-term impact and also add
personality as well as identity to the place.
 Complete street; It is expected public space should share the principle of complete
street. The complete streets concept defines streets designed to ensure the safe
circulation of all users, pedestrians, cyclist, drivers, and users of public transport.
 Green areas; In other to contribute to the air quality and helping to ease temperature,
vegetation has the power to humanize cities by attracting people to outdoor activities.
As cities becomes denser, access to green public spaces will become even more
important as urban forestation can lower people’s stress levels and enhance well-being.
In addition, trees, plants and flowerbeds are good strategic for urban drainage and
maintenance of biodiversity.
 Social participation; Public space have different uses and meaning in each
neighborhood and community, therefore there isa need for involving the residents in
designing, planning and administrating the public space.
URBAN FORM ELEMENT
The term ‘urban form’ can be used simply to describe a city’s physical characteristics. At the
broad city or regional scale, urban form has been defined as the spatial configuration of fixed
elements. The features of urban form at this scale include urban settlement type, such as a
market town, central business district or suburbs. The characteristics, therefore range from, at
a very localized scale, features such as building materials, façades and fenestration, to, at a
broader scale, housing type, street type and their spatial arrangement, or layout.
Element of Urban Form
Urban form generally encompasses a number of physical features and nonphysical
characteristics including size, shape, scale, density, land uses, building types, urban block
layout and distribution of green space. These are categorised here as five broad and inter-related
elements that make up urban form in a given city
 Density

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 Housing and building types
 Transportation infrastructures
 Land use
 Lay out
Element of Urban Planning
 Pre-existing lands
 Buildings
 Roads
 Transportation
 Economic development
 Infrastructures
 Environment
THEORIES OF URBAN GROWTH
The urban growth theories explain the internal demographic, spatial, and economic growth of
cities. The theories of urban growth are as follows;
 Concentric zone theory
 Sector theory
 Multiple nuclei theory
The Monocentric Zone Theory of Urban Growth
The Monocentric zone theory or Concentric ring model also known as the Burgess model is
one of the earliest theoretical models to explain urban social structures. It was created by
sociologist Ernest Burgess in 1925. Based on human ecology theories done by Burgess and
applied on Chicago, it was the first to give the explanation of distribution of social groups
within urban areas. This concentric ring model depicts urban land use in concentric rings: the
Central Business District (or CBD) was in the middle of the model, and the city expanded in
rings with different land uses. It is effectively an urban version of Von Thunen's regional land
use model developed a century earlier.[2] It contrasts with Homer Hoyt's sector model and the
multiple nuclei model.
The zones identified are:

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 The centre was the CBD.
 The transition zone of mixed residential and commercial uses.
 Low-class residential homes (inner suburbs), in later decades called inner city.
 Better quality middle-class homes (Outer Suburbs).
 Commuters zone.
Burgess often observed that there was a correlation between the distance from the CBD and
the wealth of the inhabited area; wealthier families tended to live much further away from the
Central Business District. As the city grew, Burgess also observed that the CBD would cause
it to expand outwards; this in turn forced the other rings to expand outwards as well. The model
is more detailed than the traditional down-mid-uptown divide by which downtown is the CBD,
uptown the affluent residential outer ring, and midtown in between.
Criticisms
The model has been challenged by many contemporary urban geographers. First, the model
does not work well with cities outside the United States, in particular with those developed
under different historical contexts. Even in the United States, because of changes such as
advancement in transportation and information technology and transformation in global
economy, cities are no longer organized with clear "zones".
 It describes the peculiar American geography, where the inner city is poor while
suburbs are wealthy; the converse is the norm elsewhere.
 It assumes an isotropic plain - an even, unchanging landscape.
 Physical features - land may restrict growth of certain sectors; hills and water features
may make some locations unusually desirable for residential purposes.
 Commuter villages defy the theory, being in the commuter zone but located far from
the city.
 Decentralization of shops, manufacturing industry, and entertainment.
 Urban regeneration and gentrification - more expensive property can be found in 'low
class housing areas.
 Many new housing estates were built on the edges of cities in Britain.
 It does not address local urban politics and forces of globalization.
 The model does not fit polycentric cities, for example Stoke-on-Trent.

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The Sectorial Theory of Urban Growth
A second theory of urban structure was proposed in 1939 by an economist named Homer Hoyt.
His model, the sector model, proposed that a city develops in sectors instead of rings. Certain
areas of a city are more attractive for various activities, whether by chance or geographic and
environmental reasons. As the city grows and these activities flourish and expand outward,
they do so in a wedge and become a sector of the city. If a district is set up for high income
housing, for example, any new development in that district will expand from the outer edge.
To some degree this theory is just a refinement on the concentric model rather than a radical
restatement. Both Hoyt and Burgess claimed Chicago supported their model. Burgess claimed
that Chicago’s central business district was surrounded by a series of rings, broken only by
Lake Michigan. Hoyt argued that the best housing developed north from the central business
district along Lake Michigan, while industry located along major rail lines and roads to the
south, southwest, and northwest. Calgary, Alberta almost perfectly fits Hoyt’s sector model.
Assumptions of the Sector Model
 Assume land is flat.
 Cities develop in sectors not in rings along major attractive areas whether. by chance
or geographic and environmental reasons.
 Building age as one move into the city centre.
 There exists well defined separation either ethnically or economically along transport
networks.
 Concentration of heavy industries in certain areas.
Difference among Concentric and Sector models
 Concentric model with circular pattern of land use zones; while sector model with
sectoral pattern of land use zones.
 Land use zones in sector model developed along transport routes radiating out from
CBD; while concentric model never mention the transport development.
 Sector model emphasizes the repelling forces of land uses; but concentric model
concerns the invasion, succession forces on the pattern of the land us.

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The Multiple Nuclei theory of Urban Growth
This model, unlike some others, takes into account the varied factors of decentralization. The
multiple nuclei model is an economical model created by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman
in 1945. This model describes the layout of a city, and it is saying even though a city may have
begun with a CBD, it will have other smaller CBDs develop on the outskirts of the city. If
other CBDs develop on the outskirts of a city, they would be around valuable housing areas to
allow shorter commutes to the outskirts of the city.
Reasons for the Model
 Harris and Ullman argued that cities don’t grow a single nucleus but several separate
nuclei.
 Each nucleus acts like a growth point.
 The theory was formed based on the idea that people have greater movement due to
increased car ownership.
 This increase of movement allows for the specialization of regional canters
 The number of nuclei around which the city expands depends upon situational as well
as historical factors.
Reasons for the Model Continued
 Certain industrial activities require transportation facilities.
 Various combinations of activities tend to be kept apart.
 Other activities are found together to their mutual advantage.
 Certain facilities need to be placed in a certain area of a city, like the CBD requires
convenient traffic systems, and many factories need an abundant source of water.
 Some events benefit from the adjacent distance like positions of factories and
residence.
Difference among Concentric, Sector and Multiple nuclei models
 monocentric – concentric, sector model; polycentric – multiple nuclei.
 multiple nuclei more complex in term of land use zones, e.g., industrial suburbs.
 multiple nuclei allow the suburbanization, transport development, outward growth of
city.

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 multiple nuclei model gives the idea of land use pattern of a city only.
Criticism of the models with illustration of the examples
 A number of criticisms have been levelled on the three models. They include the
following:
 Negligence of height of buildings.
 Non-existence of abrupt divisions between zones. 3) Each zone displays a
significant degree of internal heterogeneity and not homogeneity.
 Unawareness of inertia forces.
 No consideration of influence of physical relief and government policy.
 The concepts may not be totally applicable to oriental cities with different
cultural, economic and political backgrounds.
 Disturbance of land-use pattern by physical and historical elements and modern
development
Impact of physical elements
 The shape, expansion and land-use zoning of a city are much affected by physical
elements.
 Hilly areas are unattractive to economic functions because of transport difficulties, e.g.,
Tai Mo Shan in Hong Kong but may attract some cottage housing because of cheaper
land value.
 Some luxurious housing on site with good view, e.g. the Mid-level on Hong Kong
Island d. Water-front location provides easy accessibility and attract water transport
facilities, e.g., Kwai Chung Container Terminal and port industries e. High-income
housing e.g. Discovery Bay exists for their scenic value.
Impact of historical elements
Cities with a long history of development; e.g.
 Beijing with Royal Place and Altar of Heaven
 Rome with Vatican as religious centre and cities with colonial history
 Manila has mixed land-uses rather than clear-cut land-use zones. The mixed land-use
zones may consist of commercial, industrial, residential, cultural, religious and
administrative functions instead of one single function.

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Impact of modern developments
 Improvements of transportation, innovation of technology and government policy have
altered the land-use patterns of the models. Industrial estates, commercial buildings
and offices may locate at different parts of the city, e.g.
 Tai Po and Yuen Long Industrial Estates are widely separated
 A commercial complex at Discovery Bay
 Polycentric patterns replace mono-centric ones as a result of multi-nuclei development
in the new towns with secondary commercial centres, industrial and residential
suburbs.
 Under urban renewal programmes, the old shanty parts of the urban area are replaced
by tall modern buildings.
 While suburbanization engulfs towns and merges cities in the neighbourhood to form
an extensive urban area called megalopolis with multiple centres and a complex of
land-use zones, e.g., the Bosnywash megalopolis which extends from Boston through
New York to Washington D.C. in the northeast seaboard of North America.
LAND USE PLANNING ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Analysis is the bridge from all the background information to the recommendations and maps
for the land use element. Thoughtful analysis can lead to a future land use pattern that is
efficient, practical, responsive to the public, and focused on your community’s unique
character. While there will always be a need for judgment in the planning process, analysis
leads to informed judgment. This often leads to greater ownership, understanding, and
confidence among the community, and a more understandable and defensible plan.
Types of Land Use Planning Analysis Techniques
There are different analytical techniques regarding land use planning but we would consider
the following;
 Regional context analysis
 Community opportunities analysis
 Natural resources and soils analysis
 Transportation system analysis

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Regional Context Analysis
No community exists in a vacuum, basically all communities are influenced by their place in
the larger region that includes and surrounds them and the regional context has a major
influence on future land use possibilities. The importance of the analysis are as follows;
 Helps to learn how regional surroundings affect your community’s possibilities.
 Aid in planning for future land uses that complement what is taking place in the
surrounding region.
 Use for all types of communities.
Community Opportunities Analysis
In every community’s economic, physical, environmental, transportation, and social attributes
together provide direction for future changes in the land use pattern. The particular
opportunities will vary depending on your community’s unique attributes and particular areas
of interest. The importance are as follows;
 Helps to decide how unique opportunities affect future land use.
 Aids in planning for enough land to take advantage of future opportunities.
 Use for all types of communities.
Natural resources and soils analysis
In understanding the underlying physical characteristics of land is critical in making
responsible land use planning decisions. The agricultural, natural, and cultural resources
element often includes information and maps on natural resources and soil suitability for
different types of land uses. This data should also include prime agricultural soils, soils with
limitations for development, groundwater recharge areas, aggregate resources (sand and
gravel), drainage basins, sensitive natural areas, parks, and archaeological and historical
resources.
 Helps to analyse/determine the physical suitability of lands for different land uses.
 Aids in planning for all types of land uses, such as industrial, and will not result in
property or environmental damage.
 Use for all types of communities, but especially rural communities.

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Transportation System Analysis
The comprehensive planning law requires an understanding of the locations, conditions, and
capacity of roads and other transportation facilities. It also requires an understanding of local,
county, regional, and state transportation programs and plans that may result in future changes
to transportation facilities. The planned transportation projects can have a major influence over
future land use opportunities and patterns. For example, plans for a state highway bypass can
have a significant influence on farmland preservation, natural area protection, economic
development, and housing location decisions.
 Helps to coordinate future land uses with transportation facilities.
 Aids in arriving at realistic assessments of relationships between land uses and
transportation facilities, such as access control.
 Use in all types of communities.
SECOND ASSIGNMENT (SUBMISSION DATE-13/06/2022)
1. The roles of transportation in Urban development
2. The relationship between land use and transportation
3. Discuss the various Nigeria city transportation problems