1. The document provides safety guidelines for various aspects of construction and demolition work. It addresses safety precautions for underground works, above ground works, use of machinery, storage of materials, transportation of materials, and more. 2. Key safety measures outlined include wearing proper protective equipment, conducting safety training and audits, establishing security protocols, preparing safe work plans, using signage, and complying with regulations regarding items like chemical storage and first aid. 3. Additional precautions are noted for high-risk activities like underwater work, use of explosives, and preventing issues like falls or explosions. Strict adherence to safety procedures is emphasized throughout all construction and demolition processes.

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~UNIT 3A: Safety in Construction & Demolition Operation~
 INTRODUCTION:
As we know, every design of a building or a structure has a life span known as
design life. When this design life (80-100 years) of the building is completed, the
structure is not safe for living and neighboring buildings. The building or
structure needs to be demolished in order to reuse the space. The demolition of
the building is the process of dismantling or destroying a structure after its life of
serviceability by pre-planned and controlled methods.
 Safety in Underground Works:
Each worker should take essential precautionary measures for his safety by wearing
a steel helmet, rubber gloves, goggles and protective clothing while working.
 Safety in Above ground Works:
1. Start with safety training:
All workers must hold a current white card before they commence work on-site.
Site-specific induction training should also be completed by each worker, to point
out any high risk areas and provide instructions for emergency management.
2. Minimise and manage risk:
Due to the nature of construction work, it's impossible to eliminate all safety
risks. However, many common safety issues can be avoided by conducting
regular safety audits and having procedures in place to report, assess and
address potential risks.
3. Site security
Restricted site access should not only be put in place to simply protect equipment
from damage or theft. Security in and outside of work hours is integral to protect
pedestrians from potential construction hazards. This includes supervision or
authorised site visitors.
Strict security and safety protocols will also protect contractors from liability and
negligence in the case of a safety incident or security breach.
4. Safe work method assessment

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A safe work method statement (SWMS) must be prepared for all high risk
construction projects, before work commences. The SWMS should outline the scope
of work involved, any potential safety issues, and how risks will be prevented and
managed. By law, construction work must not commence until SWMS standards are
met.
5. Use clear signage throughout the site
The site SWMS should be clearly displayed at the construction site, so that all
safety protocols are readily available - including a 24 hour emergency contact
number and a map or directions to the site office. Visible signage should also
indicate site amenities (such as toilets), entry and exit points, and first aid or
emergency fire equipment.
6. Entry and exit points
Separate entry and exit points should be established for heavy machinery/vehicle
access, to strengthen pedestrian safety at high traffic points.
7. Compliant chemical storage
Chemicals need to be stored very carefully to minimise fires, explosions,
asphyxiation, chemical injury and pollution on worksites. Use high quality,
compliant outdoor storage solutions such as explosive storage cabinets to
segregate chemicals and reduce spillage.
8. Environmental conditions
Extreme weather conditions can cause serious safety hazards. Your on-site
emergency plan should provide clear guidelines for workers who need to stop
work in the event of natural disaster, severe environmental conditions or other
emergency circumstances.
9. First aid
For the construction industry, it's best practice to provide one first aid officer per
25 workers. First aid kits and equipment must be placed in an easily accessible
area on site.
10. Provide personal protective (PPS) equipment
In many situations an employer is obligated to provide PPS such as high vis
vests, safety goggles and safety harnesses to construction site workers. To find
what PPS you are required to provide for a specific project, contact Safe Work
Australia.
11. Dropped objects
It is your responsibility to secure objects onsite and minimise the risk of them falling.

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Construction safety doesn't end once the project is completed, and your workers
have gone home. All parties involved in the construction process have a
responsibility in ensuring that the the right equipment and quality materials are used,
so that safety risks are avoided long into the future.
 Safety in Underwater Portions:
Underwater construction work is an area which requires extensive training. Not only
does the worker need to worry about the regular dangers that come with working with
tools, now he is working in a different medium, water, which has an affect on the work
actually being done, plus he needs to use special breathing equipment.
Some of the work can be on bridges, power stations, ships, submarines, marinas, etc.
And each type of job will have its own special requirements. Diving poses a unique risk,
because if a problem arises the diver's life could be in immediate danger.
 Safety precautions
 Extreme familiarity with their diving equipment.
 Complete OSHA 10 online safety training and all occupation-specific
training necessary to adhering to applicable safety regulations while
construction is underway.
 Check working condition of equipment.
 Plan the dive: time, depth, work to be done and stick to the plan.
 Never dive alone. Always have at least one partner that you will stay close
to.
 Have a rescue plan in place.
 Know where the nearest decompression chamber is located and how to get
help.
 Descend slowly.
 Ascend slowly with the scheduled breaks.
 Monitor air supply regularly during the entire dive.
 Compression & Decompression:
The bends, also called decompression sickness. This is a condition where a diver rises
too quickly. Nitrogen that is in his body, from breathing compressed air, needs time to
leave the body. If this is not allowed then the diver can experience the bends. The only
cure for this is a decompression chamber, which must be present whenever scuba work

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is being done. Warning signs are; sore joints, itchy skin, vision and hearing difficulty,
paralysis, and death.
 Nitrogen Narcosis:
This is an affect similar to alcohol intoxication. This condition is caused because more
gases are breathed, while underwater, from the oxygen supply. Because of the greater
pressure, these gases are absorbed into the body easier than at sea level.
 Oxygen Toxicity:
This is a condition where higher levels of oxygen are breathed. This has an affect on the
body, and can result in; disorientation, trouble breathing, trouble with vision, lung
damage, seizures, and death.
 Construction Related Safety:

Under water the laws of physics and chemistry function differently. This needs to be
part of the training of anyone that will work underwater. Welding, for example,
functions differently underwater. Chemicals react differently. The weight of objects is
less and things move slower underwater.
No one should be attempting any underwater work unless they have been properly
trained. And proper training should be from a reputable certified school.
 Safety in Movement of Construction Machinery:
1. Wear your PPE(Personal Protection Equipment) at all times.
2. Follow Environmental Guidelines.
3. Keep the work area clean.
4. Ladder safety.
5. No crowding inside the site .
6. Lifting precautions.
7. Proper site training.
 Safety in use of Explosives:
Whenever setting up experiments using potentially explosive compounds:
 Always use the smallest quantity of the chemical possible.
 Always conduct the experiment within a fume hood and use in conjunction with a
properly rated safety shield.
 Be sure to remove any unnecessary equipment and other chemicals (particularly
highly toxic and flammables) away from the immediate work area.

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 Be sure to notify other people in the laboratory what experiment is being conducted,
what the potential hazards are, and when the experiment will be run.
 Do not use metal or wooden devices when stirring, cutting, scraping, etc. with
potentially explosive compounds. Non-sparking plastic devices should be used
instead.
 Ensure other safety devices such as high temperature controls, water overflow
devices, etc., are used in combination to help minimize any potential incidents.
 Properly dispose of any hazardous waste and note on the hazardous waste tag any
special precautions that may need to be taken if the chemical is potentially
explosive.
 Always wear appropriate PPE, including the correct gloves, lab coat or apron, safety
goggles used in conjunction with a face shield, and explosion-proof shields when
working with potentially explosive chemicals.
 Safety in Stacking:
Stacks should not be created which will block gangways, aisles, walkways,
thoroughfares, and particularly doors and exits. Stacks should have clear spaces of at
least 1 m on all sides, apart from walls, where a 450 mm space should be allowed. Goods
must not be stacked within 1 m of the ceiling, roof or sprinkler heads.
 Storage of construction materials
1. STORING OF BRICKS ON SITE
STACKING AND STORING OF BRICKS AT SITE
Stack the bricks close to the site of work so that less effort is required to unload and
transport the bricks again by loading on pallets or in barrows.
Different types of bricks (such as clay bricks, clay fly ash bricks etc.) shall be stacked
separately.
Bricks of different strengths and sizes (i.e. modular and non-modular) should be
stacked separately.
Bricks of different types such as solid bricks, hollow bricks, and perforated bricks
should be stacked separately.
While stacking the bricks, following guidelines must be followed for easy quality
inspection and counting.
 Stack the bricks on dry firm ground.
 Stack should be 50 bricks long, 10 bricks high and not more than 4 bricks
in width.
 Clear distance between adjacent stacks should not be less than 0.8m.
 Put bricks of each truck load in one stack.

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2. STORING OF STEEL ON SITE
Steels should be stored in such a way, so as to avoid distortion and to prevent
deterioration and corrosion. Steels of different classes should be stored separately.
Follow the guidelines given below while storing steel on site.
STORING OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT
 Store bars of different classes, sizes and lengths separately to facilitate
issues in such sizes and lengths so as to minimize wastage in cutting
from standard lengths.
 Paint the ends of bars of each class in distinct separate colors.
 Coat steel reinforcement with cement wash before stacking to prevent
scaling and rusting.
 If reinforcement bars have to be stored for a long period, then stack it
above ground level by at least 150 mm.
STORING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
 Assign separate areas for storing structural steel of different classes,
sizes and lengths.
 Store it above ground level by at least 150 mm upon platforms, skids or
any other suitable supports to avoid distortion of sections.
 In coastal areas or in case of long storage, apply protective coating of
primer to prevent scaling and rusting.
3. STORING OF CEMENT ON SITE
STORING OF CEMENT ON SITE – GUIDELINES
 Store cement in a building which is dry, leak proof and as moisture proof
as possible.
 There should be minimum number of windows in the storage building.
 Stack the cement bags off the floor on wooden planks in such a way, so
that it is about 150 mm to 200 mm above the floor.
 The floor may comprise of lean cement concrete or two layers of dry
bricks laid on well consolidated earth.
 Maintain a space of 600 mm all-round between the exterior walls and the
stacks.(see figure below)

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Arrangement in cement godown
 Stack the cement bags close to each other to reduce circulation of air.
 The height of stack should not be more than 10 bags to prevent the
possibility of lumping under pressure.
 The width of the stack should not be more than four bags length or 3
meters.
 In stacks more than 8 bags high, the cement bags should be arranged
alternately length-wise and cross-wise, so as to tie the stacks together
and minimize the danger of toppling over.
 Stack the cement bags in such a manner so as to facilitate their removal
and use in the order in which they are received.
 Put label showing date of receipt of cement on each stack of cement bags
to know the age of cement.
 When it is required to store cement for a long period of time or during the
monsoon; completely enclose the stack by a water proofing membrane
such as polyethylene.
 Different types of cement must be stacked and stored separately.

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4. STORING OF AGGREGATES ON SITE
STORING OF AGGREGATE ON SITE
 Store aggregate at site on a hard dry and level patch of ground
 If such a surface is not available then prepare a platform of planks or old
corrugated iron sheets, or a floor of bricks, or a thin layer of lean concrete
so as to prevent contamination with clay, dust, vegetable and other
foreign matter.
 Maintain sufficient distance between stacks of fine and coarse aggregates
to prevent the material at the edges of the stock piles from getting
intermixed.
 If possible then construct dividing walls to give each type of aggregate its
own compartment.
 Stack the fine aggregate in such a place where loss due to effect of wind
is minimum.
 Stacking of the aggregates should be carried out in regular stacks. The
suggested sizes for stacks are as follows.
Material
Size of Stack (in m.)
Length Breadth Height
Soling stone 5 2 0.5
5 1 0.5
Coarse aggregate 2 2 0.5
5 5 1
5 1 0.5
Fine aggregate 2 2 0.5
5 5 1
5 1 0.5

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5. STORING OF TIMBER ON SITE
STORING OF TIMBER ON SITE
• Store the timbers in stacks upon well treated and even surfaced beams
sleepers or brick pillars so as to be above the ground level by at least 150
mm.
• Store members of different length and material separately.
• Materials of equal length are piled together in layers with wooden batters,
called crossers, separating one layer from another.
• If crossers are not available, smaller section of the available structural
timber can be used in their place.
• Provide an air space of about 25 mm between adjacent members.
• Place the longer pieces in bottom layer and shorter pieces in the top
layer, but keep one end of the stack in true vertical alignment.
• Suitable width and height of a stack are recommended to be about 1.5 m
to 2.0 m.
• Distance between adjacent stacks is recommended to be at least 450
mm. (see figure shown below).
• Protect the stacks from hot dry winds, direct sun and rain.
• It is recommended to place heavy weight, such as metal rails or large
section of wood, on top of the stack to prevent distortion or warping of the
timber in the stack.
• If it is required to store the timber for about an year or more, then coat the
ends of all members with coal tar, aluminium leaf paints, micro crystalline
wax; to prevent end cracking in the material.
6. STORING OF CONCRETE BLOCKS ON
SITE
Concrete blocks are available in different forms to be used as construction material,
such as
 Solid concrete blocks
 Hollow concrete blocks
 Solid & hollow light weight concrete blocks
 Autoclave aerated concrete blocks
 Concrete stone masonry blocks
 Safety in Transportation of Construction Materials:
Construction transport is the movement of objects such as rubble, tools or asphalt
from one place to another by means of vehicles. The construction transport is usually
carried out when certain building materials are urgently needed on a construction
site.

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5 Tips for Safely Transporting Construction Materials :
1. Have a Plan in Place
Before you hit the road with these construction materials, put a plan in place to
determine the transportation process from start to finish. Trying to take things
as they come or make it up as you go will lead to mistakes and could even result
in more severe injuries.
Set up a comprehensive logistics plan for how you will handle this material
transport before you start loading up the first truck. Everyone should be aware
of the schedule, the itinerary, and their responsibilities so everything runs
smoothly the first time around.
2. Use the Right Type of Vehicle
Choosing the correct type of transportation vehicle for a load of construction
materials might seem straightforward, but there are several criteria you’ll need
to consider before making your choice.
A flatbed truck is sufficient for lumber, drywall, or roofing materials but wouldn’t
work for mixed cement. The latter needs to be kept in constant motion, and
pouring cement onto a flatbed truck will make a mess. Trailers are convenient
but may lack the hauling capacity necessary to carry your supplies safely.
In general, you’ll need to use one of three types of trucks: a dry van, a flat deck,
or a super-b. However, there may be instances where specific materials are too
large or oddly shaped for these vehicles. These oversized loads will require
additional permits and specialized transport.
3. Understand Hauling Capacities
Another essential variable to consider is the hauling capacity of your vehicles,
both in size and weight. Overloading a truck increases the risk of it breaking
down mid-transit. Stuffing it to the brim, with items sticking out the sides, can
make driving dangerous for you and others on the road.
Federal law prohibits a gross vehicle weight exceeding 80,000 pounds on the
interstate, or more than 20,000 pounds on a single axle. Be sure to learn the
maximum shipping capacity for your trucks and take special care not to exceed
that limit. It sounds simple, but when you’re trying to move as many supplies in
as few trips as possible, the temptation to overload the trucks is there.
4. Secure All Materials
Flatbed trucks are incredibly convenient for loading and unloading construction
supplies, but if the load isn’t properly secured, an unexpected hard brake or

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weather event could send your supplies all over the highway. Most states
require any loads that exceed 10,000 pounds have a minimum of four tie-down
points.
Take the time to make sure your supplies are secure before the driver pulls
away from the loading dock. In addition to being inconvenient, losing a load of
construction supplies on the highway could be dangerous or even deadly for
other drivers on the road.
5. Use Lift-Assist Tools
Construction materials are heavy. Bringing in enough shingles to cover the roof
of a three-bedroom house can weigh up to three tons. You can’t expect people
to try to offload these materials by hand, at least not in bulk. Use proper lift-
assist tools such as cranes, forklifts, and other equipment to move heavy or
palletized construction materials.
 Storing and Stacking of Cement:
 The cement shall be stored at the site in a building or a shed that is dry, moisture-
proof, and leak-proof.
 The building or shed used for storage should have a minimum number of windows
and close-fitting doors and should be kept closed as far as possible.
 The cement received in bags shall be kept in such a way that the bags are kept free
from dampness or moisture.
 The cement bags shall be stacked off the floor on wooden planks in such a way as to
keep them 150 to 200 mm clear from the ground, and space of 450mm minimum
shall be left between the exterior walls and the stacks.
 The cement bags shall be stacked close to each other to reduce the circulation of air
as much as possible.
 The height of the stacks shall not exceed more than 15 bags to prevent lumping of
cement under pressure.
 The width of the stack shall not exceed four-bag length or 3 meters.
 In stacks, more than eight bags high, the cement bags shall be arranged alternately
lengthwise and crosswise to tie the stacks together and minimize the danger of
toppling over.
 For extra safety during monsoon, or when it is expected to store for an unusually
long period, the stake shall be completely enclosed by a waterproofing membrane
such as polyethylene, which shall close on the top of the stack.
 Drums or other heavy containers of cement shall not be stacked more than two
layers high.
 Storing and Stacking of Aggregates
 The aggregates shall be stored at the site on a hard, dry, and level platform.

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 If such a surface is not feasible, a platform of planks or old corrugated iron sheets, or
a floor of bricks, or a thin layer of lean concrete shall be made so as to prevent the
admixture of clay, dust, vegetable and other foreign matter.
 The stacks of fine and coarse aggregate shall be kept in separate stockpiles
sufficiently removed from each other or separated by dividing walls to prevent the
material from getting intermixed.
 Fine aggregate shall be stacked in a place where loss due to the effect of wind is
minimum.
Handling and Use of Gas Cylinders and Equipment
• When moving and storing cylinders, make sure the cylinder valves are closed, caps are on,
and the space is dry. If acetylene is being used, properly ventilate. Tilt and roll on bottom
edges. Avoid dropping. Cylinders must be secured in a vertical position.
• Remove regulators unless secured on a cylinder cart and have a 10 pound ABC rated fire
extinguisher on cart. Remove regulators from oxygen/acetylene cutting assemblies/rigs
unless properly secured on a cylinder cart. Note: Regulators are to be removed from the
cylinders after use unless it can be determined that the cutting assembly/rig will be in use
within the following twenty-four (24) hours.
• When hoisting cylinders, use pallet, cradle, or sling board. Do not use choker sling or
magnet.
• When cutting or welding, protect cylinders from sparks, hot slag or flame by separating
them, or use fire-resistant shields or blankets
• Use friction lighters (not matches, cigarettes, etc.) to light torches.
• When work is finished or cylinders are empty, make sure cylinder valves are closed and
the caps are on the cylinders
• Store regulators, hoses, etc. in a clean, dry, well ventilated space.
• Oxygen and acetylene cylinders must be separated by a fire wall or a minimum of 20 feet
when in storage.
• Flashback safety valves must be used on all hoses and lines at the gauges and manifolds.
 Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: batching plant:-
THE PRECAUTIONS ADOPTED FOR CONCRETE BATCHING PLANT
When you work on a construction site and handle heavy-duty construction equipment such
as mobile concrete batching plants, you must consider the safety measures mentioned in
the manual. This is done to take all necessary precautions for yourself and your workers’
safety. Since all construction sites run under potentially hazardous environments due to the
construction equipment, it becomes mandatory for everyone on the job site to be careful
and vigilant while working. Proper training is given to many to ensure the safety of the
workers on-site. However, if you need guidance on handling mobile batching plants, we are

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here to your rescue. Read and adopt the safety protocols mentioned below and guide other
workers.
Take Proper Training:
First and foremost, before you step onto the construction site to operate a mobile concrete
batching plant, ensure you are trained and certified to handle the equipment. Batching
plants help mix materials like gravel, water, cement and sand to create a concrete mixture.
The pouring and mixing of content need professional hands and must not be operated by an
amateur. These mixers are common on large-scale construction sites, designed to fasten the
process of construction. If you are not well-versed with the functioning of these giant
cement blenders, you should take proper training before you participate on the
construction site.
Buy High-quality Mobile Concrete Batching Plant:
Another important safety measure is to invest in high-quality batching plants. It is best to
trust a reputable company for your purchase that offers guarantee and maintenance
services for its equipment. How do you understand a company is trustworthy? You visit their
website and check if they are a certified company or not. See how many clients have they
served before, whether or not they have a good record. Additionally, people who have
made similar purchases before are also a reliable source of information. You do not want
your batching plant to show wear and tear within a short period. Assess and purchase from
the best to safeguard the construction site and minimise the chances of mishaps.
Important safety tips when operating the mobile batching plants:
Ensure everyone who is meant to use the batching plants goes through proper training,
abides by the protocol and understands emergency procedures. In case of emergency, the
batching plant must be shut off immediately. Everyone present on-site must be familiar with
the safety rules to act instinctually.
Keep the Equipment in a Safe Location:
You must place the on-site batch plant in a location where it is not a hazard to the
environment or affects houses or communities living in the proximity of the construction
site. It is best if the batching plant is barricaded so that people do not trespass the area to
commute or otherwise. Users should make an effort to reduce dust emissions as much as
possible.
 Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: mixers
The concrete mixers and transit mixers have improved ergonomics for driving and operating
positions to eliminate unnecessary fatigue that can lead to accidents.
SAFETY PARAMETERS WHILE OPERATING CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTs:
Machinery manufacturers and users must apply all possible technical and organizational
measures to ensure that safety objectives are met by all equipment users. To avoid

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accidents and even loss of lives all due diligence must be exercised in design and usage of
construction equipments. A thorough risk assessment must be done, considering the safety
of equipments for intended use and reasonably foreseeable misuse, and safety procedures
and features developed from this risk assessment.
Safety Measures by the Manufactures Equipment manufacturers are obligated to eliminate
hazards and reduce the associated risks by applying safety as follows;
Inherently Safe Design :
This is the most efficient risk reducing measure and involves hazard reduction through the
right choice of machine design features. It also involves minimizing exposure to hazards by
reducing the necessary interventions with the danger zones.
Safe Guarding The hazards that cannot be eliminated through safe design approach are
avoided through use of the appropriate protective devices. Guards create a physical
protective barrier between human and the dangerous mechanical part of the machine.
Safe Guarding :
The hazards that cannot be eliminated through safe design approach are avoided through
use of the appropriate protective devices. Guards create a physical protective barrier
between human and the dangerous mechanical part of the machine.
Use of protective devices:
These are used where guards are not practical to use. These devices include opto electric
devices and pressure sensitive devices. Construction equipments are some of the most
powerful machines and due to these formidable abilities; they can be very dangerous in
usage. There is need for all safety elements discussed above to be considered in
construction and usage. Some of the safety elements of equipments from the Apollo carmix
company include.
Concrete Mixers:
The Self loading concrete mixer is made with strong and sturdy frame and operating parts
that are well concealed to ensure safety during operation. The concrete mixers and transit
mixers have improved ergonomics for driving and operating positions to eliminate
unnecessary fatigue that can lead to accidents.
Dumpers:
The use of Dumpers in the construction site can also pose health and safety risk. Due to the
nature of work, dumpers from Apollo carmix are made in sturdy design to withstand the
rigorous workloads without the risk of Malfunctioning during operation, which can lead to
accidents. Some safety considerations in dumpers include firm attachment of the driver’s
seat to equipment body, proper and high quality seat belts, strong and efficient hand brakes
and braking system, effective warning devices, tipping controls and signals. In the concrete
mixing processes, there are potential hazards for workers related to eye, skin and
respiratory tract irritation due to exposure to cement dust. Adequate protection must be

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made in the cement handling machinery such as the carsilos to eliminate the risk of these
hazards from occurring. Improved automation in the carsilos and dry batching plants, such
as automated release systems, sufficient vibration systems and proper safe guarding goes a
long way in ensuring that these equipments are safe for usage.
The Slipform Paver:
The Slip form paver is important equipment in infrastructural development. Over time there
has been a good amount of automation in this equipment therefore reducing that human
interaction with the machine and enhancing safety. Concrete safety barriers can be installed
on right and left hand side of the equipment to also increase the safety of the operator.
 Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: earth moving
equipment:-
SAFETY TIPS FOR OPERATORS OF HEAVY EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT:
On any construction site, a lot of work is done by heavy earth moving equipment so as to
finish the project much faster and more effectively. But the use of heavy equipment call for
a lot of maintenance and safety measures to prevent major problems down the road. The
last thing you would want on a job site is non-working equipment due to improper
maintenance, frequent breakdowns, thereby slowing down your operations. Here are some
safety tips for operators of heavy earth moving equipment to keep the machine up and
running all the time.
 Safety tips for driving and operating heavy equipment:
• Operators must check the heavy machinery thoroughly before driving and operating for
anything amiss.
• Before starting the equipment, ensure that the equipment has been serviced according to
the schedule.
• Many attachments are used with the heavy earth moving equipment including backhoe
loaders and the like. Hence, see to it that as a responsible operator, you lower all the
attachments and set the brakes.
• Operators should also ensure that the work area is absolutely clear before moving or
backing up the equipment.
• Make sure that you don’t leave the machine on a slope with the engine running as this
may put the machine into motion.
• Take extra care while working near the edges of cuts or fills.
 Safety tips for maintenance and repair of heavy equipment:
• Operators should ensure that the engines are completely shut off and keys are removed
before carrying out any repair or maintenance activity.

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• Lubricate all the moving parts of the machine well as they will fail if they aren’t lubricated
properly. Too little as well as too much lubrication can be harmful for the machine. So, you
need to lubricate the machine wisely.
• Keep the engine completely shut off while refuelling the equipment.
• Another great tip for properly maintaining the equipment is to make sure it stays as clean
as possible and dirt and debris are removed regularly.
• Earth moving machinery parts are fitted with special seals and filters designed to keep dirt
and grime out of sensitive areas. Hence, broken seals must be repaired immediately,
breathers must be kept clean and all filters should be inspected regularly and changed when
they become dirty or clogged.
• If possible, keep the equipment housed in a building.
• Create and follow a maintenance schedule. Include notations on how often each part of
the machinery should be inspected for problems, repairs and general maintenance.
• Pay close attention to wear and tear signs as they may signal problems that can cause
machinery to malfunction more often or result in costly repairs or component replacements
before your regular inspection. Some common signs of wear and tear are vibration, heat
and belt shape.
 Safety tips for parking and security of heavy equipment:
• Make sure that as operators of the heavy equipment, you lower the attachments and set
the parking brake and put the lever in the neutral position before dismounting the
equipment after the day’s work.
• Park the equipment in such a way that it does not obstruct the traffic.
Thus, as responsible operators of heavy earth moving equipment, you need to follow these
tips to operate the equipment safely, increase its lifespan and prevent dangerous injuries.
These small but important tips can help you to increase productivity as well as efficiency of
the machine.
 Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: cranes
OVERHEAD CRANE SAFETY TIPS:
Almost 30% of fatal injuries in the construction industry involve the use of cranes. Review
the following hazards and safety precautions to remain safe while working on or around
these large machines.
Overhead Crane Safety Hazards
The three most common safety hazards are:
1. Accidental contact with energized power lines.
2. Overloading crane capacity.

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3. Materials falling.
Take Safety Precautions During Crane Operation:
Train employees who work around overhead cranes on all workplace safety precautions. To
ensure a safe working environment, follow these guidelines when operating an overhead
crane:
• Move cranes into position when the area is free of workers
• Position the crane so the boom or bucket doesn’t swing over workers
• Post a traffic controller on crowded sites
• Make sure boom stops are in place to keep the crane from flipping backward
• Rope off or barricade the swing area of the crane and clearly mark it with warning signs
• Shut off the power line current if possible and make repeated visual checks of your
position in relation to power lines
• Avoid raising the boom too high
• Center the top block over the load to prevent load swinging
• Make sure you have enough counterweight to prevent tipping
• Position the boom to avoid long side-pulls and use tag lines to limit swinging when you
move a load horizontally
• Turn the crane slowly and smoothly to keep the boom from twisting
• Use properly shored outriggers to prevent tilting, which can cause a side-bend in the
boom • Rig hoisted materials to prevent unintentional displacement and use hooks with
self-closing safety latches
• Before workers move into the fall zone to handle a load, it must first be rigged by a
qualified rigger
• Avoid the quick release of a load on a near-vertical boom Protect workers on the ground
and complete overhead crane maintenance using these tips:
• Inspect your crane daily, including the brakes, clutch, boom splices and braces
• Stay out from under crane booms, buckets and suspended loads, and watch for falling
objects
• Wear a hard hat if you’re working anywhere near a crane
• Wear gloves to protect your hands
• Never enter a roped-off or barricaded area near a crane
• Watch your hand and arm placement to prevent being pinched between the sling and the
load or sling and the hook

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• Never attempt to adjust or turn a load while it’s suspended
• Anticipate a crane’s swing radius when a lifting operation is taking place.
 Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: pile driving
equipment
PILE DRIVING SAFETY & ACCIDENT PREVENTION – GEAR, SITE CONDITIONS,
MATERIAL STORAGE/HANDLING, AND MORE
Starting a Project
At the onset of a job, a superintendent should conduct a meeting wherein safety rules are
explained to all employees, with copies of the rules handed out. Prior to this meeting, the
superintendent should obtain telephone numbers of those to be contacted in emergencies,
check that a fully stocked first-aid kit is onsite, and assure that a trained first-aid person or
hospital is nearby in case of an emergency. Additionally, a superintendent should review a
project’s operating plan, equipment-related safety information, and OSHA recordkeeping
requirements. Checking all onsite safety equipment and placing mandated safety posters on
rigs and other appropriate places is also important.
Safety Gear
All operators and laborers must wear brimless plastic hard hats that conform to American
National Standards Institute Z 90.1-1969, with spares available. These hats must be
inspected before issuance, with any damaged hats discarded. Burners cutting shells, light
wall pipe, and light H-piles must wear either eyecup or cover spectype welding goggles with
shade 3 or 4 tinted lenses. When chipping or grinding, chipping goggles with clear lenses
should be worn. Welding helmets with a shade 10 or 12 lens, depending on the length of
electrodes, must be worn by welders. If extensive welding operations are conducted,
workers should be protected by portable shields and provided with shade 2 spectacles with
side shields. All workers handling plastic slate, creosoted piles, cement, and other irritating
materials should wear neoprene-coated canvas work gloves. When conducting marine
operations, workers should be provided with life jackets, with a boat available during
operations for potential rescues. Check that mirrors are clean and set properly. Check all the
attachments of the excavator. See if everything is in its proper place. Check the track system as well
before operating the excavator so that accidents can be prevented at the Jobsite.
Safety tips before the operation
1. Read the operators’ manual to get familiar with the controls of the equipment.
2. Read the warning labels and stickers as well as maintenance information, specification charts, and
other important information posted around the machine.
3. Visually inspect controls, engine compartment, undercarriage parts, hydraulic parts, and other
parts and see that everything is in proper condition.
4. Check that mirrors are clean and set properly.

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5. Check all the attachments of the excavator. See if everything is in its proper place.
6. Check the track system as well before operating the excavator so that accidents can be prevented
at the Jobsite.
7. Walk around the equipment and check loose bolts, trash build-up, oil leaks, or damaged parts.
8. Always ensure that all the safety equipment is working and clean.
9. Make it a point to know and understand the width of the machine in order to maintain proper
clearances from surrounding obstacles and obstructions.
10. Switch on the key and check for any diagnostic codes or warning alerts that are active. Rectify
the code before starting the operation.
11. Test the equipment thoroughly before the operation to check its condition and effectiveness.
12. Always use seat belts as they are provided for comfort and safety.
13. Check with the concerned person if there are any underground lines or structures at the job site.
Excavators should never be used too close to the edge of trench
14. The soil should be dumped as far as possible from the excavation site so as to avoid possible
cave-ins.
15. When excavation needs to be done on slopes, then the machine should be leveled by digging a
shelf (or a bench cut).
16. On steep bench cuts, you need to cut appropriately away from the upper bank to allow for
adequate swing clearance when casting down the slope.
17. You should never dig underneath the excavator.
18. The excavator’s tracks should be at a 90-degree angle to the excavation with the propel motors
to the rear of the machine, in case of backfilling tasks.
19. You need to ensure that you don’t clean the excavator’s bucket by striking it on the ground or
against another object.
20. You should not bang the bucket on the ground for breaking the hard strata before the digging
process. It may damage the front structure & other key aggregates of the machine.
Safety tips after the operation
1. Choose the right parking place. In fact, choose a level surface with the bucket attachment lowered
to the ground.
2. If the equipment needs to be parked on a slope, then the excavator should be choked on the
downhill side.
3. The auto-idle switch should be turned off.
4. Hydraulic system pressure is to be released by moving all the hydraulic controls several times
until release the system pressure is completely from the circuit. The key switch & hydraulic isolation
switch are to be in on condition during this process.
5. The hydraulic isolation switch is to be turned off.

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6. Ensure that the engine runs at half throttle without load for a few minutes (2-4min) to help cool
the turbocharger down.
7. Before shutting the engine off with the key switch, the RPM should be set to low idle.
8. When exiting the equipment, the cab should be locked properly.
9. Don’t forget to lock up the cab when exiting the equipment.
 Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: drilling equipment
Drilling operations are considered high risk from every standpoint because rig safety
depends on many important factors, some of which are out of control. Unexpected
challenges such as harsh weather conditions are always possible specifically on offshore rigs
but precautions should be taken for such cases in safety management of drilling operations.
There is also human error which plays a key role in drilling rig safety but organizational
policies are also involved. The data from IADC reveals 266 drilling rig incidents have occured
in 2021 (till the end of second quarter) as result of these factors. In this article, we will
explore safety in drilling operations and list the most common risks and necessary
precautions to help HSE students and professionals gain a broader knowledge of their tasks.
What safety risks are involved in drilling operations?
Drilling rig is a massive construction built in remote locations that has numerous parts
including derrick, rig floor, doghouse, cellar, the pit and pipe racks. The location and parts
impose their own hazards in drilling operations which can be summarized in following risks:
• Harsh weather conditions Depending on the location and layout of the rig, natural hazards
are frequently experienced. Offshore, it can be storms and tides with humidity and sun
exposure but onshore it is extreme temperatures of either heat or cold. They all can lead to
malfunction of equipment or collapse of structure
These location based risks can also influence mental and emotional health of workers that
coupled with isolation, long shifts, humid working environment, excessive noises and heavy
equipments might result in poor attention and terrible accidents
• Fire and explosion With presence of massive amount of oil and gas in upstream industry,
possibility of fire and explosion is really high. A small electronic spark or leak of an odorless
gas might lead to disasters. Drilling operations are at risk of fire & explosions.
What precautions should be taken to prevent accidents in drilling operations?
Each identified risk must have safety precautions during drilling operations that can be
summarized in following actions:
• Emergency response plans Being prepared is the key to overcoming emergencies such as
blowout of crude oil. It starts with training of all staff. Availability of adequate rescue
equipments is also crucial. The purpose is to save life, stabilize incidents and conserve
property.

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• Detection sensors To prevent fire and explosion, it is absolutely essential to detect smoke,
gas leak and small fires. The high tech sensors should be able to identify all possible hazards
in drilling operations.
• Safety lighting and visible signage Lighting plays a key role for safety in drilling operations
due to the complexity of the structure that might need more light for visibility. Presence of
open pits also necessities more lighting. Safety signages are also required throughout
drilling rig to remind workers of dangerous behaviors and access limits.
• Machinery maintenance and protection Maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO) must be
scheduled rigorously to make sure functionality of machines are intact. Guards and rails are
necessary to lock each part of drilling equipments in place. Electrical surge protection is also
necessary to prevent sparks and explosions or power outage. Safety Tool Boxes are also
essential for lockout/tagout procedures and proper handling of energized or mechanical
equipments.
• Regular safety training The staff training must cover every aspect of safety in drilling
operation from evacuation procedure at the time of crisis to handling of equipments and
materials along with holding proper posture and footing specifically at height or on slippery
surfaces. Even helicopter crash survival and firefighting should be included. But above all
they must learn to follow instructions and protocols instead of self regulating safety risks!
Even helicopter crash survival and firefighting should be included in regular safety training
• Non-stop supervision Drilling operation can be dangerous and human error has a part in
it. So on-site supervision is always a necessity to add an extra layer of safety.
• Adequate PPE in good condition Personal protective equipments or PPE are essential part
of safety in drilling operations. Geronimo line for monkey board, heavy duty boots for
slippery ground, hard hat, gloves and goggles are required at all times but waterproof
garments, flame resistant clothing, hearing and respiratory protection are also necessary.
wearable ID tags are very helpful at the time of crisis to quickly locate workers anywhere on
site.
• House keeping common sense Common sense is a good skill when it comes to house
keeping so small objects don’t lead to fatal falling accidents. Safety in use of construction
machinery and equipment: wielding equipment.
Handling and Use Welding Equipment
• Only standard electric arc welding equipment such as generators, motor generator units,
transformers, etc., conforming to the requirements of the National Electrical Manufacturer's
Association or the Underwriters Laboratory, Inc., or both, should be used.
• All electric welding machines must be properly grounded, and all electrical cables
inspected prior to use for damage, excess fraying and loose connections.
• Where it is necessary to couple several lengths of cable for use as a welding lead circuit,
insulated connectors should be used on both the ground and positive lead. There must be
no splices or connections within 10’ of the electrode holder (stinger).

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• Wherever practicable, shield anyone in work area from the direct rays of the arc.
Barricade hot material with a fire blanket or other non-combustible tarp.
• Regulators and gauges must only be repaired by qualified suppliers.
• Inspect the work area and look for potential hazards. Move combustibles within 35 feet of
the work area away from the work area. If combustibles can't be moved, cover them with a
non-combustible tarp. Make sure equipment is in good working order.
• Make sure a fire extinguisher is nearby. Post a fire watch if conditions warrant. Make sure
a multi-rated dry chemical fire extinguisher is nearby. If aluminum, magnesium or other
combustible metals are being welded, a Class D – Metals fire extinguisher needs to be
directly available.
• Perform atmospheric testing if the potential exists for flammable gases or vapors in the
work area. Also be aware of combustible dust (sawdust, aluminum chips etc.). Provide
ventilation if needed. Perform periodic gas tests if needed. Perform atmospheric
flammable/combustible gas test if needed
• Cover manholes, pits, sewers, doors, windows, wall cavities, floor openings and any other
openings where it would be possible for a spark to fall and create a fire.
• Shield nearby workers from flash burn. Communicate fire, burn and flash burn hazards to
them.
• Make sure you don't negatively affect other operations and equipment nearby.
• Make sure you know the location of the nearest phone and fire alarm pull station.
 Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: gas cutting
SAFETY IN GAS CUTTING ACCIDENT STARTS WHEN SAFETY ENDS
Oxy/fuel gas equipment has many uses - welding, cutting, heating, straightening etc. The
equipment is versatile, as a result, it is used widely in garages, machine shops, engineering
workshops, plant maintenance and construction. It is so widely used that sometimes people
forget about the dangers. Many people are injured each year by the incorrect or careless
use of oxy/fuel gas equipment. Some people die.
Explosion:- You must never use an oxy/fuel gas blowpipe/Torch on a drum or tank that has
contained or may have contained flammable material unless you know it has been made safe.
Checking For Gas Leaks:-
 You should take suitable precautions when checking for gas leaks. You should use solution
suitable for use with oxy/fuel systems.
 When the leak is found, you should repair or replace the component immediately. Any
detergent should be flushed off with clean water to remove any corrosive salts. You must
never look for gas leaks with a naked flame.

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 If a cylinder leaks when the valve is closed, the cylinder should be taken outside to a
ventilated area, away from sources of ignition. You should notify the supplier
immediately.
Preventing Gas leaks:-
The following precautions will help to prevent leaks:
 Keep hoses clear of sharp edges and abrasive surfaces or where vehicles can run over
them;
 Do not allow hot metal or spatter to fall on hoses;
 Handle cylinders carefully. Keep them in an upright position and fasten them to prevent
them from falling or being knocked over. For example, chain them in a wheeled trolley or
against a wall;
 Always turn the gas supply off at the cylinder when the job is finished;
 Maintain all equipment and keep in good condition;
 Regularly check all connections and equipment for faults and leaks.
Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: grinding equipment.
Grinder Machine Hazards
All types of grinding machines, whether pedestal, bench mounted, free-standing or
portable, can be potentially hazardous if they are not well maintained and used correctly.
In addition to the common hazards of flying particles, dust and sparks, shattering abrasive
wheel while in Motion can cause severe injury to both the user and others. To avoid a
potential hazard, we need to follow Grinder Safety.
Grinding Machine Operator Competency
 Only competent personnel trained in the use of grinding machine shall be allowed to use portable
grinders.
 Personnel tasked to use grinders shall attend grinder safety training before they are allowed to
use grinding machines. Grinder SafetyPrecautions
 Grinders shall Be equipped with the ‘dead man switch’. Self-modification of the toggle Switch to
function as a ‘dead man switch’ is strictly prohibited as the tool may not have been designed to
be used in that manner and maybe a poor decision from an Ergonomic perspective.
 All handheld grinding machines shall be complete with handle or commonly known as the ‘T’ bar.
Removal of the handle during use is strictly prohibited.
 Each grinding machine shall be fitted with its correct guard as supplied by the manufacturer. The
guard shall cover a minimum of 70% of the circumference of the rotating disc.
 Unbreakable glass / plastic screen shall be fit on All pedestal/static grinding machines which can
be adjusted to protect against flying particles.
 All pedestal/static grinding machines must have an efficient starting and stopping device, which is
easily accessible.
 Each grinding machine shall be inspected regularly before use, and colour coded
 Abrasive wheels, grinding or cutting discs without the manufacturer’s maximum RPM marked shall
not be used.
 RPM (rotation per minute) of the wheel shall be more than a grinding machine if machine RPM
exceeds than a wheel can break easily.

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 Grinding and cutting discs are different in the manufacture and shall therefore only be used for its
intended purpose. Cutting wheel is only allowed for cutting do not do grinding using cutting wheel,
chances of breaking. They shall be stored separately and physically identified to avoid selection
error.
 Proper PPE, including double eye protection such as the use of goggles underneath of a shatter-
resistant face shield and an inhalation mask such as dust mask, Leather gloves shall be worn by all
personnel operating grinding machines.
 Work areas around pedestal / static abrasive wheels equipment shall be kept clear of obstructions
to reduce the risk of tripping hazards.
 Screens shall be erected by fire blanked around welding/grinding works to prevent flying sparks
showering nearby personnel/equipment.
 Cables shall be run neatly in a manner and shall hang on insulated hangers that do not cause
tripping hazards.
 When changing the grinding disc of the grinder, the power source shall be isolated and the plug
physically removed.
 Expiry year of shall be visible on the disk. Do not use an expired grinding disk. & do not use a wheel
without an expiry date.
 Subjected Work-pieces shall be secured using proper clamps. Holding the workpiece onto one
hand while performing grinding operations is strictly prohibited.
 Due to the possibility of a wheel disintegrating during start-up, employees shall be briefed not to
stand directly in front of the wheel as it accelerates to full operating speed.
 Worn out / damaged, grinding or cutting disc shall be replaced. When changing the disc, proper
tools shall be use.
 All worn out / damaged, grinding or cutting disc shall be returned to the stores at the end of each
shift to ensure that they are dispose of properly.
 The power source shall be isolated and the plug physically removed while not in operation.
 Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: derricks
How will this rule improve worker safety on construction sites with cranes and derricks?
This new standard will comprehensively address key hazards related to cranes and
derricks on construction worksite, including the four main causes of worker death and injury:
electrocution, crushed by parts of the equipment, struck-by the equipment/load, and falls.
Some of the significant requirements in this new rule include: a pre-erection inspection of
tower crane parts; use of synthetic slings in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions
during assembly/disassembly work; assessment of ground conditions; qualification or
certification of crane operators; procedures for working in the vicinity of power lines. It is
anticipated that this final standard will prevent 22 fatalities and 175 non-fatal injuries each
year.
Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: compressors
Working with air compressors and the handheld tools that come along with it may get the
job done quicker, but there are some potential risks in using them without taking proper
safety measures. Air compressors powering pneumatic tools are powerful enough to cause
serious damage when not used carefully, so don’t take safety reminders for granted.

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When handling any type of industrial equipment, it is important to keep in mind some
general safety reminders. Wearing the proper equipment, checking your surroundings, and
not leaving your tools unattended are those things that can easily be overlooked if you’re not
being careful. Still, they can make all the difference in preventing any sort of possible harm to
you or your surroundings.
There are definitely a couple more safety steps to take to keep everything under control.
Read more about work safety tips for air compressors and then scroll down to take advantage
of this infographic that lists down all the important work safety tips that you have to be
mindful of at all times when air compressors are used in the workplace.
General Safety Reminders:
When using any form of industrial equipment, including air compressors and pneumatic tools,
it is important to remember these safety guidelines.
• Wear appropriate PPE, which might include safety goggles, industrial gloves and hearing
protection. • Keep your environment cool to prevent machines from overheating.
• Use a self-retracting cord to avoid tripping accidents.
• Keep spaces near exits clear of obstruction.
• Learn how to use the equipment properly before operating such machinery.
Work Safety Tips When Using Air Compressors:
Take It Outside
Unless electrically powered, air compressors have to be used outside. Diesel air tools emit
carbon monoxide, which is highly toxic. If the air compressor model is made for indoor use
keep it away from moist or wet environments.
Inspect Your Machine
Always inspect your air compressor before turning it on for any dirt or rust that may have
accumulated. Low-pressure air compressors discharge up to 151 psi, mediumpressure
compressors discharge 151 to 1,000 psi and high-pressure compressors discharge over 1,000
psi.
Check the Hose
Make sure that the air hose won’t kink or bend. Also, check if they are properly connected.
This will affect the performance of the machine. And don’t leave them on the floor, else they
become a tripping hazard.
Make Maintenance a Priority
Make it a habit to check for any leaks, whether air or oil, before turning it on. Small leaks can
still lead your machines to blow. Ensure a qualified technician repairs the machine before it
is used again.

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 Safety in use of construction machinery and equipment: crushers
the crusher equipment safety tips
1.
• Train operators about crusher safety
• Keep instruction manuals nearby
• Wear PPE at all times
• Operate within the crusher’s capacity
1. Be consistent with crusher maintenance .
2. Keep the crushing area clean.
Crushers are heavy equipment capable of breaking big rocks into smaller aggregates. It is
useful in quarrying, mining, and recycling raw materials for construction and manufacturing.
With this power and strength, owners and operators should take the time to know about
crusher safety tips.
Train Operators About Crusher Safety
Aside from having manuals, it is also imperative to train crusher operators about safety. Not
just anyone can handle heavy equipment so you can’t just assign a new person this job. There
are hazards and risks that a user has to be aware of which can result in injury. Make sure that
new hires have the proper education regarding crusher safety. Even a person who is a
professional in operating cone crushers needs to be trained in the specifics of using jaw
crushers. Aside from personnel safety, this training would ensure that heavy equipment is
used properly to prevent breakage and early repairs. A safe environment for working will lead
to more productive work which will benefit you in the long run. Make sure that you conduct
refresher training regularly to remind your staff about these safety instructions.
Keep Instruction Manuals Nearby
Manuals are important because they contain helpful information like how to operate a
crusher, safety tips to avoid accidents, directions to fix minor problems, and maintenance
recommendations. If you follow them to the letter, your crusher will rarely face any problems
in the future.
Make copies so everyone who needs to operate a crusher has a personal guide. Keep it near
the operation premises at all times so you can consult it when needed from time to time.
Wear PPE at All Times
Even before operating a crusher, workers in a hazardous job site need to wear the appropriate
work-wear. Many people do not wear their personal protective equipment properly because
they have become complacent while operating for a long time. For this, it is a good idea to
assign a person to check if your personnel is following the safety dress code.

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With the right training, this problem could be overcome easily. Just be sure to always remind
your staff that this is for their own safety. It is simple to do and it can prevent a lot of injuries.
For example, an eye shield can deflect any flying rocks that result from the crushing process.
A safety belt can also keep you safe from falling in.
Operate Within the Crusher’s Capacity
Not all crushers can handle the same types of rocks. Primary crushers can break bigger rocks
while secondary crushers will grind the resulting material to smaller and finer pieces. If you
feed a larger raw material than it can handle, it could lead to blockages which can damage
the equipment and halt productivity.
When it comes to this job, rushing your operators is not a wise move. This can lead to
overfeeding, which could only lead to major damages which will move your deadlines even
further. Always prioritize safety and follow the crusher’s capacity even if you have an urgent
task to finish. It is also a good idea to invest in more crushers to keep up with your
requirements.
Be Consistent with Crusher Maintenance
Just like all heavy equipment, a crusher will also go through normal wear and tear. You can
prolong the need for repairs and upgrades if you train your people to operate it within
capacity. Another useful thing is also to conduct regular maintenance to spot problems and
fix them early.
When doing maintenance work, it is useful to have another person aside from the operator
to inspect the crusher. This new set of fresh eyes can help you see problems that usually go
unnoticed because of complacency which results from repetitive tasks such as crushing.
Keep The Crushing Area Clean
Cleanliness is a good trait everyone should have in their job site. This habit will help prevent
accidents that are caused by a dirty environment. For example, slips and trips could happen
because of greasy ladders, neglected debris, and muddy platforms. This could lead to major
injuries which could leave your personnel in hospital beds for a long time.
Make it a goal to always have time for cleanups at the end of a working day. This can make
the housekeeping light if you do it consistently as opposed to doing it weekly or monthly.
Hazards and risks are already there as long as you have to work with heavy equipment. Having
an unsanitary and dirty environment can double this risk.