The document discusses various topics related to arrays, strings, and string handling functions in C programming language. It explains that arrays are collections of variables of the same type that can be accessed using indexes. One-dimensional and multi-dimensional arrays are declared along with examples. Common string functions like strlen(), strcpy(), strcat() etc. are described with examples to manipulate strings in C. Pointers and their usage with arrays and strings are also covered briefly.

1. Arrays,
Pointers
and
Functions
UNIT II
BY DR.T.P.LATCHOUMI

2. Arrays
An array is a collection of variables of the same type that are referenced by a common name. In C, all
arrays consist of contiguous memory locations.
The lowest address corresponds to the first element, and the highest address to the last element. Arrays
may have from one to several dimensions. A specific element in an array is accessed by an index.
One Dimensional Array
The general form of single-dimension array declaration is:
Type variable-name[size];

3. How to declare Array in C
int num[35]; /* An integer array of 35 elements */
char ch[10]; /* An array of characters for 10 elements */
Here, type declares the base type of the array, size defines how many elements the array will hold.
For example, the following declares as integer array named sample that is ten elements long:
int sample [10];
In C, all arrays have zero as the index of their first element. This declares an integer array that has ten
elements, sample [0] through sample [9]

4. Cont… To declare an array, you simply need to specify the data type of the array
elements, the variable name, and the array size. For example, if you want
to declare an integer array with four elements, you will use:
int a[4];
This statement allocates a contiguous block of memory for four integers
and initializes all the values to 0. This is how it is laid out in memory:

5. Array Initialization
The general form of array initialization is:
Type_specifier array_name[size1]…. [sizeN] = { value_list};
The value list is a comma_separated list of constants whose type is compatible with type_specifier.

6. Example 1
char str[9] = “I like C”;
this is same as writing:
char str[9] = {„I‟, „ „, „l‟, ‟i‟, ‟k‟, ‟e‟, ‟ „, ‟C‟, ‟0‟};
You can use the indexes to set or get specific values from the array. Here are a few examples:
a[0] = 10;
a[1] = 20;
a[2] = a[1] / a[0]; // a[2] will be set to 20/10 = 2
a[3] = a[1] - 2; // a[3] will be set to 20-2 = 18
After these changes, here is how the array will look like in memory:
Apart from the square brackets to indicate the index, array elements behave like normal
variables.

7. Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
// dec lare an array of size 4
int a[4];
// storing integers in the array
a[0] = 10;
a[1] = 20;
a[2] = a[1] / a[0]; // a[2] will be set to 20/10 = 2
a[3] = a[1] - 2; // a[3] will be set to 20 -2 = 18
// printing the integers
printf("%d %d %d %d n", a[0], a[1], a[2], a[3]);
return 0;
}
Output
10 20 2 18

8. Example 3
Output
Enter the value of N 5
Enter 5 numbers (-ve, +ve and zero)
10 20 30 40 50
Input array elements 10 20 30 40 50
Sum of all numbers = 150
Average of all input numbers = 30
for (i = 0; i < num; i++)
{
scanf("%d", &array[i]);
}
printf("Input array elements n");
for (i = 0; i < num; i++)
{
printf("%+3dn", array[i]);
}
/* Summation starts */
for (i = 0; i < num; i++)
{
total+=array[i];/* this means total=total+array[i]; */
}
average = total / num;
printf("n Sum of all numbers = %.2fn", total);
printf("n Average of all input numbers = %.2fn", average);
}

9. Two
dimensional
array

10. Example
// C program to store temperature of two cities of a week and display it.
#include <stdio.h>
const int CITY = 2;
const int WEEK = 7;
int main() {
int temperature[CITY][WEEK];
// Using nested loop to store values in a 2d array
for (int i = 0; i < CITY; ++i) {
for (int j = 0; j < WEEK; ++j) {
printf("City %d, Day %d: ", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", &temperature[i][j]); } }
printf("nDisplaying values: nn");
// Using nested loop to display vlues of a 2d array
for (int i = 0; i < CITY; ++i) {
for (int j = 0; j < WEEK; ++j) {
printf("City %d, Day %d = %dn", i + 1, j + 1, temperature[i][j]); } }
return 0;
}
Output
City 1, Day 1: 33
City 1, Day 2: 34
City 1, Day 3: 35
City 1, Day 4: 33
City 1, Day 5: 32
City 1, Day 6: 31
City 1, Day 7: 30
City 2, Day 1: 23
City 2, Day 2: 22
City 2, Day 3: 21
City 2, Day 4: 24
City 2, Day 5: 22
City 2, Day 6: 25
City 2, Day 7: 26
Displaying values:
City 1, Day 1 = 33
City 1, Day 2 = 34
City 1, Day 3 = 35
City 1, Day 4 = 33
City 1, Day 5 = 32
City 1, Day 6 = 31
City 1, Day 7 = 30
City 2, Day 1 = 23

11. Multidimensio
nal array
//CProgramtostoreandprint12valuesenteredbytheuser
#include<stdio.h>
intmain() {
inttest[2][3][2];
printf("Enter12values: n");
for(inti=0;i<2;++i) {
for(intj=0;j<3;++j) {
for(intk=0;k<2;++k) {
scanf("%d",&test[i][j][k]); } } }
//Printingvalueswithproperindex.
printf(" nDisplayingvalues: n");
for(inti=0;i<2;++i) {
for(intj=0;j<3;++j) {
for(intk=0;k <2;++k) {
printf("test[%d][%d][%d]=%d n",i,j,k,test[i][j][k]); } } }
return0; }
Enter 12 values:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Displaying Values:
test[0][0][0] = 1
test[0][0][1] = 2
test[0][1][0] = 3
test[ 0][1][1] = 4
test[0][2][0] = 5
test[0][2][1] = 6
test[1][0][0] = 7
test[1][0][1] = 8
test[1][1][0] = 9
test[1][1][1] = 10

12. Strings
In C, In order to allow variable length strings the 0 character is
used to indicate the end of a string. A null is specified using „0‟
and is zero. Because of the null terminator, It is necessary to
declare character array to be one character longer than the
largest string that they are to hold. For example, to declare an
array str that can hold a 10 character string, we write:
char str[11];
this makes room for the null at the end of the string. A string
constant is a list of characters enclosed by double quotation
marks.
For example:
“hello, this is a test”
It is not necessary to manually add the null onto end of string
constants – the compiler does this automatically

13. Reading a string from the
keyboard
The easiest way to input a string from the keyboard is with the gets() library function. The general
form gets() is:
gets(array_name);
To read a string, call gets() with the name of the array, with out any index, as its arguments. Upon
return form gets() the array will hold the string input. The gets() function will continue to read
characters until you enter a carriage return. The header file used for gets() is stdio.h

14. Example
# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
char str[80];
printf (“ nEnter a string:”);
gets (str);
printf (“%s”, str);
}
the carriage return does not become part of the string instead a null terminator is placed at the
end.

15. Writing strings
The puts() functions writes its string argument to the screen followed by a newline. Its prototype is:
puts(string);
It recognizes the same back slash code as printf(), such as “t” for tab. As puts() can output a string of
characters – It cannot output numbers or do format conversions it required faster overhead than
printf(). Hence, puts() function is often used when it is important to have highly optimized code.
For example, to display “hello” on the screen:
puts(“hello”);

16. Array of strings
To create an array of strings, a two-dimensional character array is used with the size of the left-Index
determining the number of strings and the size of the right Index specifying the maximum length of
each string.
For example, to declare an array of 30 strings each having a max length of 80 characters.
char str_array[30][80];
To access an individual string is quite easy: you simply specify only the left Index

17. Example
/* to accept lines of text and redisplay them when a blank line is entered */
main()
{
int t, i;
char text [100][80];
for (t=0; t<100; t++)
{
printf (“%d Enter Text: “, t);
gets (text [t]);
if (! text [t][0]) /* quit on blank line */
break;
}
for (i=0; i<t; i++)
printf (“%s n”, text [i]);
}

18. Read & write
Strings in C
using Printf()
and Scanf()
functions
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
/* String Declaration*/
char nickname[20];
printf("Enter your Nick name:");
/* I am reading the input string and storing it in nickname
* Array name alone works as a base address of array so
* we can use nickname instead of &nickname here
*/
scanf("%s", nickname);
/*Displaying String*/
printf("%s",nickname);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter your Nick name:Negan
Negan

19. Read & Write
Strings in C
using gets() and
puts() functions
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
/* String Declaration*/
char nickname[20];
/* Console display using puts */
puts("Enter your Nick name:");
/*Input using gets*/
gets(nickname);
puts(nickname);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter your Nick name:Negan
Negan

20. Basic String Handling Functions
As string data type is not present. A string constant is a list of characters enclosed in double
quotes.
For example, “Hello”
C- supports a wide range of string manipulation functions,

21. 1. Strlen()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char str1[20] = "BeginnersBook";
printf( "Length of string str1: %d", strlen(str1));
return 0;
}
Output: Length of string str1: 13
It returns the length of the string
without including end character
(terminating char ‘0’).
Syntax:
size_t strlen(const char *str)
size_t represents unsigned short

22. 2. strnlen()
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char str1[20] = "BeginnersBook";
printf("Lengt h of string str1 when maxlen is 30: %d", strnlen(str1, 30));
printf( "Length of string str1 when maxlen is 10: %d", strnlen(str1, 10));
return 0;
}
Output:
Length of string str1 when maxlen is 30: 13
Length of string str1 when maxlen is 10: 10
It returns length of the string if it is
less than the value specified for
maxlen (maximum length)
otherwise it returns maxlen value.
Syntax:
size_t strnlen(const char *str,
size_t maxlen)
size_t represents unsigned short

23. 3. strcmp()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char s1[20] = "Beginner sBook";
char s2[20] = "BeginnersBook.COM";
if (strcmp(s1, s 2) ==0)
{
printf("string 1 and string 2 are equal");
}else
{
printf("string 1 and 2 are different");
}
return 0;
}
Output:
string 1 and 2 are different
It compares the two strings and returns an
integer value. If both the strings are same
(equal) then this function would return 0
otherwise it may return a negative or positive
value based on the comparison.
int strcmp(const char *str1, const char *str2)
If string1 < string2 OR string1 is a substring of
string2 then it would result in a negative value.
If string1 > string2 then it would return positive
value.
If string1 == string2 then you would get 0(zero)
when you use this function for compare strings.

24. 4. strncmp()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char s1[20] = "BeginnersBook";
char s2[20] = "BeginnersBook.COM";
/* below it is comparing first 8 characters of s1 and s2*/
if (strncmp(s1, s2, 8) ==0)
{
printf("string 1 and string 2 are eq ual");
}else
{
printf("string 1 and 2 are different");
}
return 0;
}
Output:
string1 and string 2 are equal
It compares both the string till n
characters or in other words it
compares first n characters of
both the strings.
int strncmp(const char *str1,
const char *str2, size_t n)
size_t is for unassigned short

25. 5. strcat()
Example
#include < stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char s1[10] = "Hello";
char s2[10] = "World";
strcat(s1,s2);
printf("Output string after concatenation: %s", s1);
return 0;
}
Output:
Output string after concatenation: HelloWor ld
It concatenates two strings and
returns the concatenated string.
char *strcat(char *str1, char
*str2)

26. strncat()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
{
char s1[10] = "Hello";
char s2[10] = "World";
strncat(s1,s2, 3);
printf("Concatenation using strncat: %s", s1);
return 0;
}
Output:
Concatenation using strncat: HelloWor
It concatenates n characters of
str2 to string str1. A terminator
char (‘0’) will always be
appended at the end of the
concatenated string.
char *strncat(char *str1, char
*str2, int n)

27. 7. strcpy()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char s1[30] = "string 1";
char s2[30] = "string 2 : I‟m gonna copied into s1";
/* this function has copied s2 into s1*/
strcpy(s1,s2);
printf("String s1 is: %s", s1);
return 0;
}
Output:
String s1 is: string 2: I‟m gonna copied into s1
It copies the string str2 into string
str1, including the end character
(terminator char ‘0’).
char *strcpy( char *str1, char
*str2)

28. 8. strncpy()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char first[30] = "string 1";
char second[30] = "string 2: I‟m using strncpy now";
/* this function has copied first 10 chars of s2 into s1*/
strncpy(s1,s2, 12);
printf("String s1 is: %s", s1);
return 0;
}
Output:
String s1 is: string 2: I‟m
Case1: If length of str2 > n then it just
copies first n characters of str2 into str1.
Case2: If length of str2 < n then it copies
all the characters of str2 into str1 and
appends several terminator chars(‘0’) to
accumulate the length of str1 to make it
n.
char *strncpy( char *str1, char *str2,
size_t n)
size_t is unassigned short and n is a
number.

29. 9. strchr()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char my str[30] = "I‟m an example of function strchr";
printf ("%s", strchr(mystr, 'f'));
return 0;
}
Output:
f function strchr
It searches string str for character
ch (you may be wondering that in
above definition I have given data
type of ch as int, don’t worry I didn’t
make any mistake it should be int
only. The thing is when we give any
character while using strchr then it
internally gets converted into integer
for better searching.
char *strchr(char *str, int ch)

30. 10. strrchr()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char mystr[30] = "I‟m an example of function strchr";
printf ("%s", strrchr(mystr, 'f'));
return 0;
}
Output:
function strchr
It is similar to the function strchr,
the only difference is that it
searches the string in reverse
order, now you would have
understood why we have extra r in
strrchr, yes you guessed it correct,
it is for reverse only.
char *strrchr(char *str, int ch)

31. 11. strstr()
#include <stdio.h>
#include < string.h>
int main()
{
char inputstr[70] = "String Function in C at BeginnersBook.COM";
printf ("Output string is: %s", strstr(inputstr, 'Begi'));
return 0;
}
Output:
Output string is: BeginnersBook.COM
You can also use this function in plac e of strchr as you can give single char also in place of
search_term string.
It is like strchr, except that it
searches for string srch_term
instead of a single char.
char *strstr(char *str, char
*srch_term)

32. User defined functions
A function is a block of code that performs a specific task.
C allows you to define functions according to your need. These functions are known as user-
defined functions. For example: Suppose, you need to create a circle and color it depends upon
the radius and color. You can create two functions to solve this problem:
createCircle() function
color() function

33. Function prototype
A function prototype is simply the declaration of a function that specifies function's name, parameters and return type. It doesn't contain
function body.
A function prototype gives information to the compiler that the function may later be used in the program.
Syntax of function prototype
returnType functionName(type1 argument1, type2 argument2, ...);
In the above example, int addNumbers(int a, int b); is the function prototype which provides the following information to the compiler:
1. name of the function is addNumbers()
2. return type of the function is int
3. two arguments of type int are passed to the function
The function prototype is not needed if the user-defined function is defined before the main() function.

34. Calling a function
Control of the program is transferred to the user-defined function by calling it.
Syntax of function call
functionName(argument1, argument2, ...);
In the above example, the function call is made using addNumbers(n1, n2); statement inside the
main() function.

35. Function definition
Function definition contains the block of code to perform a specific task. In our example, adding two
numbers and returning it.
Syntax of function definition
returnType functionName(type1 argument1, type2 argument2, ...)
{
//body of the function
}
When a function is called, the control of the program is transferred to the function definition. And the
compiler starts executing the codes inside the body of a function.

36. Passing
arguments to a
function
In programming, argument refers
to the variable passed to the
function. In the above example,
two variables n1 and n2 are
passed during the function call.
The parameters a and b accepts
the passed arguments in the
function definition. These
arguments are called formal
parameters of the function.

37. Return
Statement
The return statement terminates the execution of a
function and returns a value to the calling function. The
program control is transferred to the calling function
after the return statement.
In the above example, the value of the result variable is
returned to the main function. The sum variable in the
main() function is assigned this value.
Syntax of return statement
return (expression);
For example,
return a;
return (a+b);

38. Example 1
Creating a user defined function
addition()

39. Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
/* function return type is void and it doesn't have parameters*/
void introduction()
{
printf("Hi n");
printf("My name is Cha itanya n");
printf("How are you?");
}
int main()
{
introduction();
return 0 ;
}
Output:
Hi
My name is Chaitanya
How are you?
Creating a void user defined
function that doesn’t return
anything

40. Types of user defined function
These 4 programs below check whether the integer entered by the user is a prime number or not.
The output of all these programs below is the same, and we have created a user-defined function
in each example. However, the approach we have taken in each example is different.
1. No argument and no return value
2. No argument and with return value
3. With argument and no return value
4. With argument and with return value

41. 1. Function with no arguments
and no return value
Such functions can either be used to display information or they are completely dependent on
user inputs.
Function with no argument means the called function does not receive any data from calling
function and Function with no return value means calling function does not receive any data from
the called function. So there is no data transfer between calling and called function.

42. Example
#include<stdio.h>
void greatNum(); // function declaration
int main()
{
greatNum(); // funct ion call
return 0;
}
void greatNum() // function definition
{
int i, j;
printf("Enter 2 numbers that y ou want to compare...");
scanf("%d%d", &i, &j);
if(i > j) {
printf( "The greater number is: %d", i);
}
else {
printf("The greater number is: %d", j);
}
}
Output
Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare... 12 20
The great er number is: 20

43. 2. Function with no arguments
and return value
As said earlier function with no arguments means called function does not receive any data from
calling function and function with one return value means one result will be sent back to the caller
from the function.

44. Example
#include<stdio.h>
int greatNum(); // function declaration
int main()
{
int result;
result = greatNum(); // function call
printf("The greater number is: %d", result);
return 0;
}
int greatNum() // function definition
{
int i, j, greaterNum;
printf("Enter 2 numbers that you want to compa re...");
scanf( "%d%d", &i, &j);
if(i > j) {
greaterNum = i;
}
else {
greaterNum = j;
}
// returning the result
return greaterNum;
}
Output
Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare...12 20
The greater number is: 20

45. 3. Function with arguments and
no return values
Here function will accept data from the calling function as there are arguments, however, since
there is no return type nothing will be returned to the calling program. So it’s a one-way type
communication

46. Example
#include<stdio.h>
void greatNum(int a, int b); // function declaration
int main()
{
int i, j;
printf ("Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare...");
scanf("%d%d", &i, &j);
greatNum(i, j); // function call
return 0;
}
void greatNum(int x, int y) // functio n definition
{
if(x > y) {
printf("The greater number is: %d", x);
}
else {
printf("The greater number is: %d", y);
}
}
Output
Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare...12 20
The greater number is:20

47. 4. Function with arguments and
with return value
Function with arguments and one return value means both the calling function and called function
will receive data from each other. It’s like a dual communication.

48. Example
#include<stdio.h>
int greatNum(int a, int b); // function declaration
int main()
{
int i, j, result;
printf("Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare...");
scanf("%d%d", &i, &j);
result = greatNum(i, j); // fun ction call
printf("The greater number is: %d", result);
return 0;
}
int greatNum(int x, int y) // function definition
{
if(x > y) {
return x;
}
else {
return y;
}
}
Output
Enter 2 numbers that you want to compare...12 20
The greater number is:20

49. Function with multiple return
values
So far we have used functions that return only one value because function normally returns a
single value.
However, we can use functions which can return multiple values by using input parameters and
output parameters.
Those parameters which are used to receive data are called input parameters and the parameters
used to send data are called output parameters. This is achieved by using address operator(&)
and indirection operator(*). Moreover, following example will clarify this concept.

50. Example
#include <stdio.h>
void area_volume(int l, int *a, int *v); //function prototype
int main()
{
int l,a,v;
printf("Enter the side of square :");
scanf("%d",&l);
area_volume(l,&a,&v); //func tion call
printf("Area = %d n Volume = %d",a,v);
return 0;
}
void are a_volume(int l, int *a, int *v)
{
*a = l*l;
*v = l*l*l;
}
Output
Enter the side of square: 6
Area = 36

51. Nesting of
Functions
If function2() also has a call for function1() inside it, then in
that case, it will lead to an infinite nesting. They will keep
calling each other and the program will never terminate.
Not able to understand? Lets consider that inside the main()
function, function1() is called and its execution starts, then
inside function1(), we have a call for function2(), so the
control of program will go to the function2().
But as function2() also has a call to function1() in its body,
it will call function1(), which will again call function2(),
and this will go on for infinite times, until you forcefully
exit from program execution.
C language also allows nesting of functions i.e to
use/call one function inside another function's body. We
must be careful while using nested functions, because it
may lead to infinite nesting.
function1()
{
// function1 body here
function2();
// function1 body here
}

52. Recursion
A function that calls itself is known as a recursive function. And this technique is known
as recursion.
How recursion works?
void recurse()
{
... .. ...
recurse();
... .. ...
}
int main()
{
... .. ...
recurse();
... .. ...
}

53. How it works?

54. Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
int sum(int n);
int main() {
int number, result;
printf("Enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d", &number);
result = sum(number);
printf("sum = %d", result);
return 0;
}
int sum(int n) {
if (n != 0)
// sum() function calls itself
return n + sum(n -1);
else
return n;
}
Output
Enter a positive integer:3
sum = 6

55. Cont…

56. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Recursion
Recursion makes program elegant. However, if performance is vital, use loops instead as
recursion is usually much slower.
Recursion is an important concept. It is frequently used in data structure and algorithms. For
example, it is common to use recursion in problems such as tree traversal.

57. Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
unsigned long long int factorial(unsigned int i) {
if(i <= 1) {
return 1;
}
return i * factorial(i - 1);
}
int main() {
int i = 12;
printf("Factorial of %d is %d n", i, factorial(i));
return 0;
}
Output
Factorial of 12 is 479001600

58. Example 2
#includ e <stdio.h>
int fibonacci(int i) {
if(i == 0) {
return 0;
}
if(i == 1) {
return 1;
}
return fibonacci(i -1) + fibonacci(i -2);
}
int main() {
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
printf("%d tn", fibonacci(i));
}
return 0;
}
Output
0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34

59. Pointers
Look at some of the valid pointer declarations
int *ip; /* pointer to an integer */
double *dp; /* pointer to a double */
float *fp; /* pointer to a float */
char *ch /* pointer to a character */
The actual data type of the value of all pointers, whether
integer, float, character, or otherwise, is the same, a long
hexadecimal number that represents a memory address.
The only difference between pointers of different data
types is the data type of the variable or constant that the
pointer points to.
A pointer is a variable whose value
is the address of another variable,
i.e., direct address of the memory
location. Like any variable or
constant, you must declare a pointer
before using it to store any variable
address.
The general form of a pointer
variable declaration is −
type *var-name;

60. Initialize a
pointer
After declaring a pointer, we initialize it like standard
variables with a variable address. If pointers in C
programming are not uninitialized and used in the
program, the results are unpredictable and potentially
disastrous.
To get the address of a variable, we use the ampersand
(&)operator, placed before the name of a variable whose
address we need. Pointer initialization is done with the
following syntax.
Pointer Syntax
pointer = &variable;

61. Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=10; //variable declaration
int *p; //pointer variable declaration
p=&a; //store address of variable a in pointer p
printf("Address stored in a variable p is :%xn",p); //accessing the address
printf("Value stored in a variable p is:%d n",*p); //accessing the value
return 0;
}
Output:
Address stored in a variable p is:60ff08
Value stored in a variable p is:10

62. Changing
Value Pointed
by Pointers
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int* pc, c;
c = 22;
printf( "Address of c: %p n", &c);
printf("Value of c: %d nn", c); // 22
pc = &c;
printf("Address of pointer pc: %p n", pc);
printf("Content of pointer pc: %d nn", *pc); // 22
c = 11;
printf("Address of pointer pc: %p n", pc);
printf("Content of pointer pc: %d nn", *pc); // 11
*pc = 2;
printf("Ad dress of c: %p n", &c);
printf("Value of c: %d nn", c); // 2
return 0;
}
Output
Address of c: 2686784
Value of c: 22
Address of pointer pc: 2686784
Content of pointer pc: 22
Address of pointer pc: 2686784
Content of pointer pc: 11
Address of c: 2686784
Value of c: 2

63. Example 2
#include <stdio.h >
int main()
{
// A normal integer variable
int Var = 10;
// A pointer variable that holds address of var.
int *ptr = &Var;
// This line prints value at address stored in ptr.
// Value stored is value of variable "var"
printf("Value of Var = %d n", *ptr);
// The output of this line may be different in different
// runs even on same machine.
printf("Address of Var = %p n", ptr);
// We can also use ptr as lvalue (Left hand
// side of assignment)
*ptr = 20; // Value at address is now 20
// This prints 20
printf("After doing *ptr = 20, *ptr is %d n", *ptr);
return 0;
}
Output :
Value of Var = 10
Address of Var = 0x7fffa057dd4
After doing *ptr = 20, *ptr is 20

64. Pointer Expressions and Pointer
Arithmetic
A limited set of arithmetic operations can be performed on pointers. A pointer may be:
• incremented ( ++ )
• decremented ( — )
• an integer may be added to a pointer ( + or += )
• an integer may be subtracted from a pointer ( – or -= )
Pointer arithmetic is meaningless unless performed on an array.
Note : Pointers contain addresses. Adding two addresses makes no sense, because there is no idea
what it would point to. Subtracting two addresses lets you compute the offset between these two
addresses.

65. Example
#include < stdio.h>
int main()
{
// Declare an array
int v[3] = {10, 100, 200};
// Declare pointer variable
int *ptr;
// Assign the address of v[0] to ptr
ptr = v;
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
{
printf("Value of *ptr = %d n", *ptr);
printf("Value of ptr = %p nn", ptr);
// Increment pointer ptr by 1
ptr++;
}
}
Output:
Value of *ptr = 10
Value of ptr = 0x7ffcae30c710
Value of *ptr = 100
Value of ptr = 0x7ffcae30c714
Value of *ptr = 200
Value of ptr = 0x7ffcae30c718

66. Key Points to Remember About
Pointers in C
• Normal variable stores the value whereas pointer variable stores the address of the variable.
• The content of the C pointer always be a whole number i.e. address.
• Always C pointer is initialized to null, i.e. int *p = null.
• The value of null pointer is 0.
• & symbol is used to get the address of the variable.
• symbol is used to get the value of the variable that the pointer is pointing to.
• If a pointer in C is assigned to NULL, it means it is pointing to nothing.
• Two pointers can be subtracted to know how many elements are available between these two pointers.
• But, Pointer addition, multiplication, division are not allowed.
• The size of any pointer is 2 byte (for 16 bit compiler).

67. Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int *ptr, q;
q = 50;
/* address of q is assigned to ptr */
ptr = &q;
/* display q's value using ptr variable */
printf("%d", *ptr);
return 0;
}
Output
50

68. Types of
Pointers in C
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int *p = NULL; //null po inter
printf(“The value inside variable p is: n%x”,p);
return 0;
}
Output:
The value inside variable p is:
0
Null Pointer
We can create a null pointer by
assigning null value during the
pointer declaration. This method
is useful when you do not have
any address assigned to the
pointer. A null pointer always
contains value 0.

69. Void Pointer
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
void *p = NULL; //void pointer
printf("The size of pointer is:%dn",sizeof(p));
return 0;
}
Output:
The size of pointer is:4
In C programming, a void pointer
is also called as a generic pointer.
It does not have any standard
data type. A void pointer is created
by using the keyword void. It can
be used to store an address of any
variable.

70. Wild pointer
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int *p; //wild pointer
printf("n%d",*p);
return 0;
}
Output
timeout: the monitored command dumped core
sh: line 1: 95298 Segmentation fault timeout 10s main
A pointer is said to be a wild pointer
if it is not being initialized to
anything. These types of C pointers
are not efficient because they may
point to some unknown memory
location which may cause problems
in our program and it may lead to
crashing of the program. One should
always be careful while working with
wild pointers.

71. C Pointers &
Arrays with
Examples
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a[5]={1,2,3,4,5}; //array initialization
int *p; / /pointer declaration
/*the pt r points to the first element of the array*/
p=a; /*We can also type simply ptr==&a[0] */
printf("Printing the array elements using pointer n");
for(int i=0;i<5;i++) //loop for traversing array elements
{
printf(" n%x",*p); //printing array elements
p++; //incrementing to the next element, you can also write p=p+1
}
return 0;
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5

72. Pointers and
Multidimensio
nal Arrays
Consider pointer notation for the
two-dimensional numeric arrays.
consider the following declaration
int nums[2][3] = { {16, 18, 20},
{25, 26, 27} };
In general, nums[i][j] is equivalent
to *(*(nums+i)+j)

73. C Pointers and
Strings
A string is an array of char objects,
ending with a null character ' 0'.
We can manipulate strings using
pointers. This pointer in C example
explains this section

74. Advantages of Pointers in C
• Pointers are useful for accessing memory locations.
• Pointers provide an efficient way for accessing the elements of an array structure.
• Pointers are used for dynamic memory allocation as well as deallocation.
• Pointers are used to form complex data structures such as linked list, graph, tree, etc.

75. Disadvantages of Pointers in C
• Pointers are a little complex to understand.
• Pointers can lead to various errors such as segmentation faults or can access a memory
location which is not required at all.
• If an incorrect value is provided to a pointer, it may cause memory corruption.
• Pointers are also responsible for memory leakage.
• Pointers are comparatively slower than that of the variables.
• Programmers find it very difficult to work with the pointers; therefore it is programmer's
responsibility to manipulate a pointer carefully.

76. Pointer to Pointer in C
A pointer to a pointer is a form of multiple indirection, or a chain of pointers. Normally, a pointer
contains the address of a variable. When we define a pointer to a pointer, the first pointer
contains the address of the second pointer, which points to the location that contains the actual
value as shown below.

77. Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int var;
int *ptr;
int **pptr;
var = 3000;
/* take the address of var */
ptr = &var;
/* take the address of ptr using address of operator & */
pptr = &ptr;
/* take the value using pptr */
printf("Value of var = %d n", var );
printf("Value available at *ptr = %d n", *ptr );
printf("Value available at **pptr = %d n", **pptr);
return 0;
}
Value of var = 3000
Value available at *ptr = 3000
Value available at **pptr = 3000

78. Dynamic
Memory
Allocation in C
Dynamic Memory Allocation is manual
allocation and freeing of memory according to
your programming needs. Dynamic memory is
managed and served with pointers that point to
the newly allocated memory space in an area
which we call the heap.
Now you can create and destroy an array of
elements dynamically at runtime without any
problems. To sum up, the automatic memory
management uses the stack, and the C
Dynamic Memory Allocation uses the heap.
The <stdlib.h> library has functions responsible
for Dynamic Memory Management.

79. C malloc()
Function
The C malloc() function stands for memory
allocation. It is a function which is used to
allocate a block of memory dynamically. It
reserves memory space of specified size
and returns the null pointer pointing to the
memory location. The pointer returned is
usually of type void. It means that we can
assign C malloc() function to any pointer.
Syntax of malloc() Function:
ptr = (cast_type *) malloc (byte_size);

80. Example
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(){
int *ptr;
ptr = malloc(15 * sizeof(* ptr)); /* a block of 15 integers */
if (ptr != NULL) {
*(ptr + 5) = 480; /* assign 480 to sixth integer */
printf("Value of the 6th integer is %d",*(ptr + 5));
}
}
Output:
Value of the 6th integer is 480

81. C calloc()
Function
The C calloc() function stands for
contiguous allocation. This function is
used to allocate multiple blocks of
memory. It is a dynamic memory
allocation function which is used to
allocate the memory to complex data
structures such as arrays and structures.
Syntax of calloc() Function:
ptr = (cast_type *) calloc (n, size);

82. Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i, * ptr, sum = 0;
ptr = calloc(10, sizeof(int));
if (pt r == NULL) {
printf("Error! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("Building and calculating the sequence sum of the first 10 terms n ");
for (i = 0; i < 10; ++i) { * (ptr + i) = i;
sum += * (ptr + i);
}
printf("Sum = %d", sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
Result:
Building and calculating the sequence sum of the first 10 terms
Sum = 45

83. C free() method
“free” method in C is used to dynamically de-
allocate the memory. The memory allocated using
functions malloc() and calloc() is not de-allocated
on their own. Hence the free() method is used,
whenever the dynamic memory allocation takes
place. It helps to reduce wastage of memory by
freeing it.
Syntax:
free(ptr);

84. Example

85. C realloc()
method
“realloc” or “re-allocation” method in C is used to dynamically
change the memory allocation of a previously allocated memory.
In other words, if the memory previously allocated with the help
of malloc or calloc is insufficient, realloc can be used to
dynamically re-allocate memory. re-allocation of memory
maintains the already present value and new blocks will be
initialized with default garbage value.
Syntax:
ptr = realloc(ptr, newSize);
where ptr is reallocated with new size 'newSize'.

86. Example
#include <stdio.h>
#includ e <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int *ptr, i , n1, n2;
printf("Enter size: ");
scanf("%d", &n1);
ptr = (int*) malloc(n1 * sizeof(int));
printf("Addresses of previously allocated memory: ");
for(i = 0; i < n1; ++i)
printf("%u n",pt r + i);
printf(" nEnter the new size: ");
scanf("%d", &n2);
// rellocating the memory
ptr = realloc(ptr, n2 * sizeof(int));
printf("Addresses of newly allocated memory: ");
for(i = 0; i < n2; ++i)
printf("%u n", ptr + i);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
When you run the program, the output will be:
Enter size: 2
Addresses of previously allocated memory:26855472
26855476
Enter the new size: 4
Addresses of newly allocated memory:26855472
26855476
26855480
26855484

87. Difference between static and
dynamic memory allocation

88. Difference Between malloc() and
calloc() Functions in C:

89. Array of
pointers
#include <stdio.h>
const int MAX = 3;
int main () {
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr[MAX];
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
ptr[i] = &var[i]; /* assign the address of integer. */
}
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d n", i, *ptr[i] );
}
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
Value of var[0] = 10
Value of var[1] = 100
Value of var[2] = 200

90. Pointer to an
Array in C
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
/* an array with 5 elements */
double balance[5] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 17.0, 50.0};
double *p;
int i;
p = balance;
/* output each array element's value */
printf( "Array values using pointern");
for ( i = 0; i < 5; i++ ) {
printf("*(p + %d) : %fn", i, *(p + i) );
}
printf( "Array values using balance as addressn");
for ( i = 0; i < 5; i++ ) {
printf("*(balance + %d) : %fn", i, *(balance + i) );
}
return 0;
}
Array values using pointer
*(p + 0) : 1000.000000
*(p + 1) : 2.000000
*(p + 2) : 3.400000
*(p + 3) : 17.000000
*(p + 4) : 50.000000
Array values using balance as address
*(balance + 0) : 1000.000000
*(balance + 1) : 2.000000
*(balance + 2) : 3.400000
*(balance + 3) : 17.000000
*(balance + 4) : 50.000000

91. Pointers and functions
In C programming, it is also possible to pass addresses as arguments to functions.
To accept these addresses in the function definition, we can use pointers. It's because pointers
are used to store addresses.

92. Pass
Addresses to
Functions
#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int *n1, int *n2);
int main()
{
int num1 = 5, num2 = 10;
// address of num1 and num2 is passed
swap( &num1, &num2);
printf("num1 = %dn", num1);
printf("num2 = %d", num2);
return 0;
}
void swap(int* n1, int* n2)
{
int temp;
temp = *n1;
*n1 = *n2;
*n2 = temp;
}
When you run the program, the
output will be:
num1 = 10
num2 = 5

93. Passing
Pointers to
Functions
#include <stdio.h>
void addOne(int* ptr) {
(*ptr)++; // adding 1 to *ptr
}
int main()
{
int* p, i = 10;
p = &i;
addOne(p);
printf("%d", *p); // 11
return 0;
}
Output
11

94. Function
Pointer in C
#include <stdio.h>
// A n ormal function with an int parameter
// and void return type
void fun(int a)
{
printf("Value of a is %d n", a);
}
int main()
{
// fun_ptr is a pointer to function fun()
void (*fun_ptr)(int) = &fun;
/* The above line is equiva lent of following two
void (*fun_ptr)(int);
fun_ptr = &fun;
*/
// Invoking fun() using fun_ptr
(*fun_ptr)(10);
return 0;
}
Output:
Value of a is 10

95. Thank You