The document provides an overview of the human nervous system, including:
- The central nervous system (CNS) which includes the brain and spinal cord. The brain is made up of the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, medulla oblongata, pons, and spinal cord.
- The peripheral nervous system (PNS) which includes nerves and ganglia that connect the CNS to the rest of the body. It has somatic and autonomic divisions.
- Neurons, the basic functional units that transmit nerve impulses, and neuroglia, supporting cells that nourish neurons. Impulses are transmitted via changes in electrical potentials across neuronal membranes
Introduction to nervous system, Divisions of Nervous System, Nervous System P...Shaista Jabeen
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Introduction to nervous system, Divisions of Nervous System, Nervous System Physiology
Introduction to nervous system
Divisions of Nervous System
Nervous System Physiology
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Short Notes
ppt pdf
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain controls most body functions, including awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts, speech and memory. The spinal cord is connected to the brain at the brain stem and is covered by the vertebrae of the spine.
Introduction to nervous system, Divisions of Nervous System, Nervous System P...Shaista Jabeen
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCrrAABI7QDRCJ1yMrQCip_w/videos
https://www.facebook.com/ShaistaJabeeen/
https://www.facebook.com/Human-Physiology-Lectures-100702741804409/
Introduction to nervous system, Divisions of Nervous System, Nervous System Physiology
Introduction to nervous system
Divisions of Nervous System
Nervous System Physiology
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Short Notes
ppt pdf
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain controls most body functions, including awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts, speech and memory. The spinal cord is connected to the brain at the brain stem and is covered by the vertebrae of the spine.
Peripheral Nervous System, Audumbar MaliAudumbar Mali
Peripheral Nervous System,
Types of PNS,
Spinal nerves,
Types of neuron (3 basic types),
Plexus,
Cranial nerves,
Autonomic nervous system,
Structure of Neuron,
Human Anatomy and Physiology-I,
Syllabus As per PCI,
B. Pharm-I
1 GNM anatomy Unit -11 Central Nervous System CNS.pptxthiru murugan
By:M. Thiru murugan
Unit – 11:
Types of nerves- structure and functions
Brain and cranial nerves.
Spinal cord and motor and sensory pathways of the spinal cord, autonomic nervous system.
Nervous system:
Nervous system is one of vital system in our body which control and coordinate all the functions of body parts.
Classification:
Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
1. Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Somatic nervous System & Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Central Nervous System (CNS):
The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind.
It consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord.
The brain is the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over body movement.
It interprets information from our special senses, as well as from internal organs
Meninges:
The coverings of brain and spinal cord are called meninge.
There are 3 layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
Dura (outer layer)
Arachnoid (middle layer)
Pia matter (inner layer)
Dura mater: The tough outer layer is called the dura mater. protect the central nervous system.
Arachnoid: The middle layer is the arachnoid, It contains cerebrospinal fluid, which acts to cushion the brain
Pia matter: the innermost layer of the meninges, the pia mater closely covers the brain.
Brain:
Introduction:
The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body.
the brain and spinal cord Together make up the central nervous system, or CNS
The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing - often many at one time
Diagram:
Structure:
The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem
Cerebrum (telencephalon or endbrain): is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement.
Cerebellum (little brain): is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance.
Brainstem: consist midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord.
Functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.
Lobes of the brain:
Each hemisphere has 4 lobes:
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Each lobe may be divided, once again, into areas that serve very specific functions
The cerebral cortex has many folds, called the gyrus (plural: "gyri") and its trough is called a sulcus (plural: sulci)
Deep structure of Brain:
Hypothalamus: is located in the floor of the third ventricle and
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
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2. 1. Introduction
Two systems enables animals to
respond to the environment:
• Nervous system
• Endocrine system
What is the difference between the
two systems?
3. • Each unicellular organism can
respond to stimuli in its environment.
• Animals are multicellular and most
groups respond to stimuli using
systems of neurons.
• The simplest animals with nervous
systems, the cnidarians, have
neurons arranged in nerve nets.
4. • A nerve net is a series of
interconnected nerve cells.
5. • More complex animals have nerves
• Nerves are bundles that consist of
the axons of multiple neurons.
AXON
6. • Bilaterally symmetrical animals
exhibit cephalization.
• Cephalization is the clustering of
sensory organs at the front end of
the body.
7. • Relatively simple cephalized
animals, such as flatworms, have a
central nervous system (CNS).
• The CNS consists of a brain and
longitudinal nerve cords.
8. • Annelids and arthropods have
segmentally arranged clusters of
neurons called ganglia.
9. • In vertebrates:
• The CNS is composed of the brain
and spinal cord
• and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS) is composed of
nerves and ganglia.
10. • In vertebrates:
• The spinal cord conveys
information from the brain to the
PNS.
• The spinal cord also produces
reflexes independently of the
brain.
• A reflex is the body’s automatic
response to a stimulus.
• For example, a doctor uses a
mallet to trigger a knee-jerk reflex
12. 2. The Human Nervous system
The human nervous system has 3
specific functions:
• Receives sensory input
• It performs integration
• It generates motor output
13. The human nervous system
CENTRAL NERVE
SYSTEM (CNS)
PERIPHERAL NERVE
SYSTEM (PNS)
Cranial and Spinal
nerves)
BRAIN SPINAL
CORD SOMATIC/MOTOR
NERVOUS SYSTEM
(Skin, senses and
skeletal muscles)
AUTONOMIC
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
(Cardic- ,
smooth muscles
and glands)
SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC
14.
15. a. Human Brain and spinal cord
Consist of 6 major parts:
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• The Diencephalon
• Medulla Oblongata
• Pons
• Spinal cord
19. • The cerebrum has right and left cerebral
hemispheres.
• Each cerebral hemisphere consists of a
cerebral cortex (gray matter) overlying
white matter and basal nuclei.
• Grey matter: cell bodies of neurons
• White matter: Myelin sheath around axons
of neurons.
• The cerebral cortex consists of folds and
grooves called sulci and gyri.
• The basal nuclei are important centres for
planning and learning movement
sequences
20. • A thick band of axons called the corpus
callosum provides communication
between the right and left cerebral
corticals
• The right half of the cerebral cortex
controls the left side of the body, and vice
versa.
• Each side of the cerebral cortex has four
lobes: frontal, temporal, occipital, and
parietal lobe.
• Protected by 3 meninges: Dura mater (outer),
Pia mater(inner), Arachnoid (middle).
25. • The Cerebellum lies under the occipital lobe
of cerebrum.
• Divided into 2 cerebellar hemispheres which
is attached by a vermis.
• Consist of parallel grooves.
• Cross section show the white matter in a “tree-
like” shape, with thin grey matter surrounding it
• Functions:
• 1) Maintain posture and balance.
• 2) Ensures smooth, coordinated voluntary
muscle movement.
27. • The diencephalon develops into three
regions: the epithalamus, thalamus,
and hypothalamus.
• The epithalamus includes the pineal
gland and generates cerebrospinal
fluid from blood. Secrete melatonin
– believed to be involved in jet lag
and insomnia. Also starts puberty.
28. • Thalamus has grey matter on inside
and white matter on outside.
• Thalamus is located on side and roof
of third ventricle.
• Functions of the thalamus:
1. Receives info via nerves from various
parts of body and sends it to the
appropriate part of the cerebrum for
integration.
2. Involved in emotions and memory.
29. • The hypothalamus : Forms the floor
of the third ventricle.
• Functions of the HYPOTHALAMUS:
1) Helps to maintain homeostasis by
regulating hunger, sleep, thirst, body
temperature and water balance.
2) Controls the pituitary gland (link
between nervous and endocrine
gland)
33. • The Pons:
• Pons in Latin means bridge.
• Contains bundles of axons traveling
between the cerebellum and the rest
of CNS.
• Help Medulla Oblongata to regulate
breathing – has Pneumotaxic- and
Apneustic centers
35. • The Spinal Cord:
• The spinal cord is an elongated
cylindrical structure, about 45 cm
long.
• It extends from the medulla
oblongata to the second lumbar
vertebrae of the backbone.
• The terminal part of the spinal cord is
called the conus medullaris.
36. • The spinal cord consists of long tracts of
myelinated nerve fibres (known as white
matter) arranged around a symmetrical
butterfly-shaped cellular matrix of grey
matter.
• The grey matter contains cell bodies of motor
neuron fibres, and interneurons.
• Protected by the vertebral column.
• The central canal of the spinal cord and the
ventricles of the brain are hollow and filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
• The cerebrospinal fluid is filtered from blood
and functions to cushion the brain and spinal
cord.
37. • The spinal cord functions primarily in
the transmission of neural signals
between the brain and the rest of
the body.
• Also contains neural circuits that can
independently control numerous
reflexes and central pattern
generators.
40. B. PERIPHERAL NERVE SYSTEM
• Lies outside the CNS.
• Contains nerves (bundles of axons)
• Humans have 12 pairs of cranial
nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
• Cranial nerves originate in the brain and
mostly terminate in organs of the head
and upper body
• Spinal nerves originate in the spinal
cord and extend to parts of the body
below the head
41. • It consist of two functional
components: Somatic (MOTOR)
and autonomic nerve system.
• The motor system carries signals to
skeletal muscles and is voluntary.
• The autonomic nervous system
regulates the internal environment
in an involuntary manner.
42. • The autonomic nervous system has
sympathetic, parasympathetic, and
enteric divisions.
• The sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions have antagonistic effects on
target organs.
• The sympathetic division correlates with
the “fight-or-flight” response
• The parasympathetic division promotes a
return to “rest and digest”
• The enteric division controls activity of the
digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder.
43.
44. C. NERVE TISSUE
Consist of:
• Nerve cells called neurons (receives
and conduct impulses to and from CNS
• And supporting cells called neuroglia
(supply support and nourishment to
neurons).
45. STRUCTURE OF A NEURON
• Vary in appearance depending on their function
and location.
A neuron consist of 3 major parts:
1. Cell body (Contains nucleus and several other
organelles in neuroplasm e.g. Nissl bodies,
Neurofibrils, ext.)
2. Axon (Nerve fiber that transports impulses away
from cell body to another neuron. Always protected by
a Myelin sheath)
3. Dendrite (Short nerve processes that transports
impulses towards the cell body from other neurons or
from the sensory receptors).
46. Neurons are classified according to structure or
function.
According to structure there are 3 types of
neurons:
a.UNIPOLAR NEURON (Neuron with one process
extending from cell body)
b. BIPOLAR NEURON (Neuron with 2 processes
extending from the cell body)
c. MULTIPOLAR NEURON (Neuron with many
processes extending from the cell body)
47. TYPES OF NEURONS ACCORDING TO
FUNCTION:
• SENSORY NEURON: Transport impulses from
the sensory receptors to the central nervous
system (CNS)
• INTERNEURON: Convey impulses between
various parts of the CNS like between sensory
and motor neurons. Integration of impulse.
• MOTOR NEURON: Transport impulses from
the CNS to the effector organ (muscle or
gland)
48. TYPES OF NEURONS ACCORDING TO FUNCTION:
• SENSORY NEURON: Transport impulses from
the sensory receptors to the central nervous
system (CNS)
• INTERNEURON: Convey impulses between
various parts of the CNS like between sensory
and motor neurons. Integration of impulse.
• MOTOR NEURON: Transport impulses from
the CNS to the effector organ (muscle or
gland)
49. 3. TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSES ACROSS
AN AXON
• Nerve impulses are conducted along
neurons by means of electrochemical
transmission.
• There has to be a significant electrical
potential difference across a membrane
(membrane potential) for an impulse to
be conducted.
50. RESTING AND ACTION POTENTIAL OF
THE AXONAL MEMBRANE
RESTING POTENTIAL
• When an axon is not conducting an
impulse the membrane potential is -
65mV
• This indicates that the inside of the
axon is more negative [more K-ions and
less Na+ ions] than the outside [less K-
ions and more Na+ ions])
52. ACTION POTENTIAL BEGINS
• Is a rapid change in polarity across a part of the
axon membrane as the nerve impulse occurs.
• It uses gated channel proteins in axon membrane
to exchange Na+ and K- ions.
• When the Na+ gates open and Na+ moves inside
the axon, depolarization take place.
• The action potential changes from -65mV to +40mV.
• The Na+ gates close and K- gates open and K- leave
the axon
• Action potential change from +40mV to -65mV,
repolarization occurred
55. Threshold
• Is the minimum change in polarity across the axon
membrane that is required to generate an action
potential.
56. Propagation of Action Potentials –
• In nonmyelinated axons the impulse
travels at 1m/sec.
• In myelinated axons, the gated ion
channels (producing an action potential)
are concentrated at the nodes of Ranvier,
therefore the action potential “jumps”
from node to node – this is called
saltatory conduction. Speed – 200m/sec.
57. 4. Chemical transmission across a synapse
• Synapse – Open space between the axon of
one neuron and the dendrite of the following
neuron.
• The membrane of the first neuron is the
presynaptic membrane and the membrane
of the other neuron is called the postsynaptic
membrane.
• Gap between neurons is the synaptic cleft.
59. Chemical transmission across a synaptic
cleft
• It is carried out by means of neurotrans-
mitters, found in synaptic vesicles.
• Nerve impulses reaches the axon terminal.
• Gated channels for Ca+ open and Ca+ enter
the terminal.
• The rise in Ca+ stimulates synaptic vesicles to
merge with the presynaptic membrane.
• Neurotransmitter molecules are released into
synaptic cleft.
60. • They diffuse through to the
postsynaptic membrane.
• Where they bind with specific
receptor proteins.
• Taken up by vesicles of dendrite
• Change impulse to electrical
transmission further.
61.
62. 5. Neurotransmitters and
Neuromodulators
Neurotransmitters:
• Acetylcholine (ACh) - Excites skeletal muscles but
inhibits cardiac muscles. Excitatory or inhibitory
effect on smooth muscles and glands
• Norepinephrine (NE)- Important for dreaming,
waking and mood
• Dopamine - Emotions, learning and attention
• Serotonin - Thermoregulation, sleeping, and
perception
63. Neurotransmitters:
• Neurotransmitters are present in CNS and
PNS.
• After the effect of neurotransmitters, they are
digested by enzymes in the postsynaptic
membrane or retaken up by presynaptic
membrane.
Neuromodulators:
Block the release of neurotransmitters or modify
a neuron’s response to a neurotransmitter.
E.g. endorphins.
64. 5. Neurodisorders
• Disorders of the nervous system include
schizophrenia, depression,
Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s
disease and ADD.
• Genetic and environmental factors
contribute to diseases of the nervous
system.
65. Depression
• Two broad forms of depressive illness are
known: major depressive disorder and
bipolar disorder
• In major depressive disorder, patients
have a persistent lack of interest or
pleasure in most activities
• Bipolar disorder is characterized by
manic (high-mood) and depressive
(low-mood) phases
• Treatments for these types of depression
include drugs such as Prozac and
lithium
66. Drug Addiction and the Brain Reward
System
• The brain’s reward system rewards motivation
with pleasure
• Some drugs are addictive because they
increase activity of the brain’s reward system
• These drugs include cocaine, amphetamine,
heroin, alcohol, and tobacco
• Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive
consumption and an inability to control intake
67. Drug Addiction and the Brain Reward
System
• Addictive drugs enhance the activity of the
dopamine pathway
• Drug addiction leads to long-lasting changes
in the reward circuitry that cause craving for
the drug.
68. Alzheimer disease
• Alzheimer’s disease is a mental deterioration
characterized by confusion, memory loss, and
other symptoms
• Alzheimer’s disease is caused by the formation
of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid
plaques in the brain
• A successful treatment in humans may hinge on
early detection of amyloid plaques
• There is no cure for this disease though some
drugs are effective at relieving symptoms