Intent to provide easy understanding to all subjects of METABOLISM & METABOLICS and GLYCOLYSIS
Easy to understand short notes with illustrative diagrams to enhance quick understanding
Glycolysis is the important topic from Metabolism of carbohydrate. In this topic we learn about Glycolysis #steps #rxn.#energitic #regulation #notes #important terms.
It is also known as EMP pathway (Embden meyerhof parsent pathway)
his presentation is all about respiration occurring inside human bodies how they occur and is well explained via equations.hope students as well as instructors,teachers and professors would greatly benefit from this presentation.
Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic cycle or citric acid cycleNeha Agarwal
The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules — amino acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates.
Hans Adolf Krebs. Biochemist; born in Germany. Worked in Britain. His discovery in 1937 of the ‘Krebs cycle’ of chemical reactions was critical to the understanding of cell metabolism and earned him the 1953 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.
Cellular Energy Transfer (Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle) and ATPmuhammad aleem ijaz
This presentation is all about Cellular Energy Transfer with reference to Glycolysis and Kreb Cycle with all their stages involved.
It also includes ATP production in the body, its importance, structure.
Also contains a comparison of energy production in Krebs and Glycolysis cycle.
Glycolysis is the important topic from Metabolism of carbohydrate. In this topic we learn about Glycolysis #steps #rxn.#energitic #regulation #notes #important terms.
It is also known as EMP pathway (Embden meyerhof parsent pathway)
his presentation is all about respiration occurring inside human bodies how they occur and is well explained via equations.hope students as well as instructors,teachers and professors would greatly benefit from this presentation.
Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic cycle or citric acid cycleNeha Agarwal
The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules — amino acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates.
Hans Adolf Krebs. Biochemist; born in Germany. Worked in Britain. His discovery in 1937 of the ‘Krebs cycle’ of chemical reactions was critical to the understanding of cell metabolism and earned him the 1953 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.
Cellular Energy Transfer (Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle) and ATPmuhammad aleem ijaz
This presentation is all about Cellular Energy Transfer with reference to Glycolysis and Kreb Cycle with all their stages involved.
It also includes ATP production in the body, its importance, structure.
Also contains a comparison of energy production in Krebs and Glycolysis cycle.
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+.
Complete Glycolysis in short or easy way to understand
Glycolysis is derived from the Greek words glykys = sweet and lysis = splitting.
This pathway was described by EMBDEN,MEYERHOFF and PARNAS. Hence, it is also called EMP PATHWAY.
glycolysis is the process in which 1 molecule of glucose broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.thus, 4 ATP molecules are synthesised and 2 ATP molecules are used during glycolysis. it occur in cytoplasm of animal cells,plant cell.
carbohydrate metabolism, Glycolysis, metabolic process of carbohydrates, EMP ...RajkumarKumawat11
carbohydrate metabolism, Glycolysis, metabolic process of carbohydrates, EMP pathway, Embden- Meyerof-Paranas pathway, cabohydrate metabolic process for study, A presentation on cabohydrate metabolic process i.e. Glycolysis
All living cells require energy to carry out various cellular activities.
This energy is stored in organic molecules (e.g. carbohydrates, fats, proteins) that we eat as food.
These organic molecules are broken down into smaller units: proteins into amino acids, polysaccharides into simple sugars, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol by enzymatic reactions in cells to generate energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
The ATP generated by these pathways in cells is used to drive fundamental cellular processes.
Glucose is utilized as a source of energy, & stored as glycogen to release glucose as & when the need arises.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
1. GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis; Is a process of breaking down glucose. The
process yields two ATP molecules containing free energy,
two pyruvate molecules, two high energy, electron-
carrying molecules of NADH, and two molecules of
water.
OR
Is a process of releasing energy within sugars. In
Glycolysis a six carbon sugar (6C) mainly GLUCOSE, is
split into two molecules two molecules of three carbon
sugar (3C) called pyruvate.
2. The three (3) stages of Glycolysis.
1. Sugar phosphorylation.
This is the first stage in glycolysis, in this stage the
6C sugar is activated and making it more reactive.
ATP is used at this stage. Under this stage lie
several steps that are;
3. STEP 1.
Here, HEXOKINASE
enzyme adds a
phosphate group to the
Glucose in the cells
cytoplasm to form
glucose-6-phosphate.
One molecule of ATP is
consumed giving ADP.
4. STEP 2.
The ISOMARASE enzyme
PHOSPHOGLUCOISOMERA
SE isomerizes Glucose-6-
phosphate (G6P) into it’s
isomer Fructose-6-
phosphate (F6P)
5. STEP 3.
Then
PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE
uses another ATP
molecule to transfer a
Phosphate group to
Fructose-6-phosphate in
order to form Fructose-
1,6-bisphosphate. Two
ATP molecules used so
far.
6. STAGE TWO (2)
2. Lysis stage.
This is the second stage, whereof the phosphorylated six
carbon (6C) sugar is split into two molecules of three carbon
(3C) sugar which are isomers of each other.
This stage involves steps explained in next slides.
7. STEP 4.
The
enzyme aldolase splits
fructose 1,6-
bisphosphate into a
ketone and an aldehyde
molecule. These sugars,
dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (DHAP) and
glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate (G3P), are
isomers of each other.
8. STEP 5.
• The enzyme triose-phosphate isomerase rapidly converts DHAP into
G3P (these isomers can inter-convert). G3P is the substrate needed
for the next step of glycolysis.
9. STEP 6.
The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) serves
two functions in this reaction.
First, it dehydrogenates G3P by
transferring one of its hydrogen
(H⁺) molecules to the oxidizing
agent nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD⁺) to form
NADH + H⁺.
10. Cont…
•Next, GAPDH adds a phosphate from the cytosol
to the oxidized G3P to form 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate (BPG). Both molecules of
G3P produced in the previous step undergo this
process of dehydrogenation and
phosphorylation.
11. STEP 7.
The
enzyme phosphoglycero
kinase transfers a
phosphate from BPG to
a molecule of ADP to
form ATP. This happens
to each molecule of
BPG. This reaction yields
two 3-phosphoglycerate
(3 PGA) molecules and
two ATP molecules.
12. STEP 8.
The
enzyme phosphoglycer
omutase relocates the P
of the two 3 PGA
molecules from the
third to the second
carbon to form two 2-
phosphoglycerate (2
PGA) molecules.
13. STEP 9.
The
enzyme enolase removes
a molecule of water from
2-phosphoglycerate to
form
phosphoenolpyruvate
(PEP). This happens for
each molecule of 2 PGA
from step eight.
14. STEP 10.
The enzyme pyruvate
kinase transfers a P
from PEP to ADP to
form pyruvate and
ATP. This happens for
each molecule of PEP.
This reaction yields
two molecules of
pyruvate and two ATP
molecules.
15. INPUT, OUTPUT AND NET GAIN.
• Input in glycolysis are glucose molecules, 2NAD+ molecules
and 2ATP molecules.
• The output in the glycolysis are 4ATP molecules, 2pyruvate
molecules and 2NADH+
• The net gain of ATP is 2 ATP
16. The fate of pyruvate is OXYGEN dependent aerobic or anaerobic,
this depends on the presence or absence of oxygen.
1. In presence of OXYGEN (Aerobic), pyruvate is converted to
acetyl by the enzymes pyruvate dehydrogenase, then enters
the Krebs's cycle.
2. In absence of oxygen (anaerobic) conditions, pyruvate is
converted to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.
Pyruvate is also converted to acetaldehyde and furthermore
to ethanol.
FATE OF PYRUVATE