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underutilized legumes

The document discusses several underutilized legume crops with potential for improving food security. It describes the winged bean, noting its nutritional value, adaptability, and breeding challenges like determinate growth habit. Sword bean and its antimicrobial properties from extracts are mentioned. For jack bean, efforts to reduce anti-nutritional factors through processing methods like autoclaving are discussed. The document also briefly covers lima bean, velvet bean and its L-Dopa content, and African yam bean.

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PRESENTED BY, VANISREE PADMANABHAN 2019534005
• In order to meet the global food demands, focus should be on promoting the cultivation and utilization of crops which have been neglected and underexploited but have the potential to enhance food and nutrition security especially in the developing countries. • The significant roles that legumes play in the food cultures around the world as veritable sources of quality protein, natural medicine, animal fodder, natural fertilizers, and environmental restoration products, alongside the well-established soil enrichment property of symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria should be exploited. • Here it will be discussed about some selected minor legumes with huge potentials to boost protein security in period of hunger and malnutrition.
• Neglected and Underutilized Species are identified by certain criteria: LOCAL IMPORTANCE-consumption and production ADAPTATION- Agroecology REPRESENTATION-landraces
RARE REPRESENTATION - ex situ collections INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE- Cultivation and utilization MAINSTREAM MARKET - Neglect
• Legumes belong to Family Fabaceae of the Angiospermae and are considered rich in high-quality proteins. • It is divided into grain legumes and pasture/forage legumes. • The grain legumes are grown mainly as pulses providing food for humans • While pasture legumes are cultivated to feed domestic animals. • Based on plant utility and economy, legumes are categorized as Major species Minor species
• Major legumes are popular and common with well-established domestication and cultivation, agronomic practices, utilization, and conservation. • Examples include Soybean (Glycine max) Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) Groundnut (Arachis hypogea) Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) Pea (Pisum sativum ) Chick pea (Cicer arietinum )
JACK BEAN Canavalia ensiformis WINGED BEAN Psophocarpus tetragonalobus SWORD BEAN Canavalia gladiata VELVET BEAN Mucuna pruriens LIMA BEAN Phaseolus lunatus BAMBARA GROUNDNUT BEAN Vigna subterranea MINOR LEGUMES
MINOR LEGUMES
• Psophocarpus tetragonolobus popularly known as winged bean. • Its somatic chromosome number is 2n = 18 and is one of the old legumes. • It is a multipurpose legume plant with all parts being edible. • It is grown in many parts of the humid tropics, including Central and South America, the Caribbean, Africa, Oceania, and Asia. • Rich in vitamins, minerals, protein, and secondary metabolites such as phenolic and flavonoids. • Highly resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses • The seeds of winged bean exhibit tolerance to storage pests. • Protein content of tubers 20% and 10-15% in leaves and flowers.
High seed yield with low shelling percentage Early flowering Synchronization of pod maturity Senescence at the end of growing season High protein and oil content High yield with green pods free from parchment layers High nutritive value
Selection for low pod yield Huge vegetative growth High yield and quality tubers with high protein Low fibre content and acceptable flavour
BREEDING CONSTRAINTS • Indeterminate growth habit • High cost of labor • Anti-Nutritional Factor • Pod shattering • Late maturing • Low yield • Scandent habit Breeding the photo insensitive variety is another priority to reduce the long gestation period required for flowering and fruiting. At Kyushu University (Japan) some photo insensitive varieties like KUS-8, KUS-15 found promising. Transcriptome sequencing for gene discovery and marker development. BREEDING ACHIVEMENTS POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
ORIGIN AND ITS PROGENITOR: • The wild African progenitor, P. grandifloras based on its morphological resemblance and shared susceptibility to the fungus Synchytrium psophocarpi. GROWTH HABIT AND PLANT ARCHITECTURE: • Dwarf or determinate winged bean cultivars obtained by Mutagenesis – But no clear evidence is provided. • TILLING – possible approach to obtain determinate growth phenotypes ,but it requires sequence information of target genes. The genomic basis of a determinate shoot apex meristems has been uncovered in other legumes.
NUTRIENT AND ANITI-NUTRIENT COMPOSITION: Crude protein content in winged bean is higher than cow pea and pigeon pea. Winged bean oil: • Has high thermal conductivity and oxidative features. • Superior to soy bean oil as used as frying medium. • Rich in Saturated fatty acid thereby making it less preferred. It is suggested to be used in food formulation system by blending with wheat or cow pea flour and used as composite flours.
MATURE SEED CONSUMPTION: 1)Hard seed coat that adheres tightly to the cotyledons could hampered cookability and digestion of winged bean mature seeds. 2)Anti-nutritional factors • Identification of genes involved in tannin content as well as other anti-nutritional factors. • Cooking methods like Autoclave or Boiling has also been investigated. Development of Easy-to-cook varieties of winged bean without compromising on its nutritional content – Breeding objective
Effect of day length and temperature on reproductive development • Winged bean is a short day species and exhibits photothermal sensitivity. • Flower bud development is inhibited during long day condition. • Studies reveal that both temperature and day length control the onset of flowering and tuberization. Nodulation and N₂ fixation Activity • Nodulation and N fixing activity could be used in aiming development of improved winged bean varieties for Mixed agricultural system. • It was reported that lighter seed coat colour was associated with increased nodules per plant.
• Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata ) is species in the genus Canavalia of the Fabaceae family • It is a vigorous perennial climber plant usually cultivated as an annual. • Reports indicated that sword bean originated from the Asian continent and is now known in the tropics as an introduced species. • The red sword bean is one of the edible beans of China reportedly rich in antioxidant polyphenols with great medicinal uses. • The seed coat of the bean is rich in gallic acid and its derivatives, mainly gallotannins, a common trait found in legume polyphenols. • The chemical composition of seeds of sword bean has been reported and compares quite well with soybean . • The sword bean is relatively resistant to attack from pests and diseases.
• ANTI NUTRITIONAL FACTORS: Canavanine • HARD SEED COAT: • Overnight soaking and boiling in excess water followed by decanting gave the most pronounced reduction in canavanine content( 50%) • Roasting and Autoclaving were less effective in reducing the canavanine content. • Soaked seed after mechanical Scarification in distilled water germinated faster than non-soaked seeds. • The rate of germination was 98% in scarified and 68% in non- scarified soaked seeds.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION • Red sword bean-Edible bean cultivated in china. • The polyphenols Gallic acid and Gallotannins- Responsible for the red colour. ANTIMICROBIALACTIVITY OF SWORD BEAN: • Ethanol Extracts of Sword bean showed strong activity against food poisoning Bacteria (Vibro parahemolyticus) after 9 hours of inoculation. (Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety) RED SWORD BEAN COAT Excellent Natural source of Gallotannins and their extracts can be utilized as Natural Antioxidant and Antibacterial Agents in food Industry.
SWORD BEAN- SHADE SENSITIVE • Investigation taken to study the response of sword bean under different light conditions. Low light condition makes the crop Unfit for Consumption. Low light (shade condition) Plant height Chlorophyll content Low light (shade condition) Dry matter production Specific Leaf weight Yield
• Sword bean flowers are visited by bees and 20% or more cross pollination occurs ( Kooi,1993) • Bagged flowers set pods and seeds indicating perfect self compatibility. (peter,1998) • Crossing proves difficult as the flowers are very sensitive and therefore bud pollination is recommended. • In south east Asia , sword bean cultivars have been developed with reduced toxicity. • Hybrids of Canavalia gladiata with both Canavalia ensiformis and Canavalia africana have occurred from natural crosses.
• To increase the use of Canavalia green fruits and young seeds as vegetable, IMPROVED CULTIVARS EITHER BY INTRODUCTION OR BY BREEDING. CULTIVARS WITH APPEALING TEXTURE AND REDUCED ANTI – NUTRITIONAL FACTORS.
• Canavalia ensiformis is the most economically important species in the genus Canavalia, with enormous potentials to serve as food for both humans and livestock . • It is in large-scale cultivation in Congo and Angola . • It is rich in protein and thrives well in poor and acidic soils. • Jack bean is mainly grown for its nutritious pods, seeds, and as fodder. • It is a forage crop with high green manure capacity to enrich the soils and also to control soil erosion. • It possesses deep root system which enables the plant to penetrate deeply into the soil. • Raw jack bean contains toxic compounds such as tannin, phytate, saponins, canavanine, concanavalin A (hemagglutinin), and trypsin inhibitors.
NUTRITIONAL FACTORS: BUT THE ANTI- NUTRITIONAL COMPOUNDS WOULD KILL ME..
ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS: • These compounds restricts its utilization as human food. DETOXIFICATION: THERMO-STABLE FACTORS • canavanine • concanavalin • canavalin • canatoxin THERMO-LABILE FACTORS • protease inhibitors • lectins • phytic acid AUTOCLAVING BOILING AND SOAKING EXTRUSION FERMENTATION CHEMICAL TREATMENTS
ALLELOPATHIC EFFECT OF JACK BEAN: • Magalhães and Franco (1962) observed an inhibitory effect on the budding of sedge tubers (Cyprus rotundus) • Anaya (1999) found that C. ensiformis leaves, when added to the soil, inhibited more than 50% of the incidence of root nematodes in tomato plants. C. ensiformis has a strong inhibitory influence, and extracts obtained with solvents with higher dielectric constants were the most efficient at inhibiting the germination
• In western countries it is used as a cover crop and the roasted seeds are ground to prepare coffee-like drink (Bresson et al., 1987). • In Nigeria C. ensiformis, is grown as ornamental plant, planted near houses and allowed to trail on walls and trees, believed to repel snakes (Abiodun and Lashanda, 2012). FUTURE PROSPECTS Development of improved cultivars with reduced anti-nutritional factors. Development of therapeutic drugs- CONCANAVALIN Exploitation of Allelopathic effects in various crops.
• Lima bean – Phaseolus lunates ,rich in protein. • Lima bean is grown for its edible seeds and as leafy vegetable in the Caribbean, Peru, Mexico, and Asian regions . • It is resistant to viral and rust diseases and withstand insect pests, drought, and abiotic stress. • The species also tolerates different levels of aluminum and manganese toxicity.
CYANOGENESIS OF WILD LIMA: DIRECT DEFENCE NATURE (Daniel J. Ballhorn, Stefanie Kautz, Martin Heil, 2009) • A prominent experimental model plant for studies of inducible indirect plant defences against herbivores. • These indirect (carnivore attracting) defences include the release of herbivore-induced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and secretion of extrafloral nectar (EFN). • VOCs of lima bean play a role in defence-associated signaling between plants. • A characteristic direct chemical defence of lima bean is cyanogenesis, i.e. the release of toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN) from preformed cyanide-containing compounds in response to cell damage.
• Plants do not rely on a single defence mechanism, but rather express multiple defences comprising the constitutive and induced synthesis of many chemical compounds. • The combination of different traits often leads to the evolution of multiple defence syndromes. CROP IMPORVEMNET STUDIES : Lima beans types widely grown are:  Baby lima beans  Ford hook lima beans  Hybrid pole lima beans
• The genus Mucuna, belonging to the Fabaceae family. • Cowitch and cowhage are the common English names of Mucuna types with abundant, long stinging hairs on the pod. • It is cultivated in Asia, America, Africa, and the Pacific Islands, where its pods are used as a vegetable for human consumption, and its young leaves are used as animal fodder. • Toxic compounds are L-dopa and hallucinogenic tryptamines, and anti-nutritional factors such as phenols and tannins (Awang et al., 1997).
PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF VELEVT BEAN ANTI-VENOM PLANT SEEDS WATER PROTEINS Anti-microbial PLANT LEAVES METHANOL TANNINS ALKALOIDS L-DOPA NEUROPROTECTIVE PLANT SEEDS, WHOLE PLANT ETHANOL/WATER N-PROPANOL L-DOPA AMINO ACIDS ALKALOIDS ISOQUINOLINES ANTI-DIABETIC PLANT SEEDS ETHANOL/WATER(1:1) CYCLITOLS OLIGOSACCHARIDES ANTI-OXIDANT PLANT SEEDS, LEAVES,WHOLE PLANT METHANOL PHENOLS TANNINS
BIOACTIVE COMPONDS IN VELVET BEAN (Medicinal properties, potential antioxidant activity) Total free phenols Tannins phytic acid L-Dopa Indigenous methods Results SOAKING IN TAMARIND SOLUTION AND COOKING Significant reduction of all bio-active compounds SOAKING IN ALKALINE SOLUTION AND COOKING Significant and aggressive reduction of all bio-active compounds SPROUTING AND OIL-FRYING Reduction of total phenols and tannins OPEN-PAN ROASTING Slightly increases the phenol content and minimal loss of L-Dopa
INCORPORATION OF VELVET BEAN: alternative protein source in poultry feed. • Soaking in 0.2% sodium bicarbonate solution + autoclaving treatment- to reduce Antinutritional compounds. • Replacement of soybean meal protein up to 40% level, which corresponds to the inclusion of velvet bean meal up to 15.7% and 11% in the starter and finisher phase poultry feeds, respectively, exhibited better growth performance of broiler birds without any adverse effects. PARKINSON DISEASE: • The main phenolic compound of Mucuna seeds is L-dopa , a precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine(approximately 5%) (Vadivel and Pukalenthi, 2008). • Mucuna is widely studied because L-dopa is a substance used as a first-line treatment for Parkinson's disease.
ANTI-PARKINSONS ACTIVITY OF SILVER INDONESIAN VELVET Beans-seed extract nanoparticles Utilization of plant extracts that have anti-Parkinson activity-velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens L.). Changing the particle size of the extract into nanoscale particle is expected to increase its anti- Parkinson activity. 1.The research was conducted to synthesize silver-velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens L.) seed extract nanoparticles (AgMPn) and to evaluate its antiparkinsonian activity through the catalepsy test in mice. 2.Catalepsy test demonstrated that AgMPn at the doses of 5, 15, and 20 mg/kg body weight lowered the catalepsy symptoms in mice significantly, with the best dose was 5 mg/kg body weight.
• African Yam Bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) is one of seven species of the genus Sphenostylis • It occurs in dry forests and in open or forested savannas in tropical and Southern Africa. • The plant is perennial; the stems often have a reddish pigmentation and are glabrous and woody near their bases • Roots develop tubers that are rich in starch and serve as organs of perennation when the aerial parts die during the dry season (National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Kul et al., 2001) • The plants bear purple to magenta colored flowers on pseudo racemes. • The pods each contain 20 to 30 seeds that mature about 30 days after fertilization (Kul et al., 2001). • The seeds are brown, white, speckled or marbled in color.
ORIGIN • The occurrence of wild races can also be traced to East and Southern African regions. • A study of chloroplast DNA and linguistic data (Potter and Doyle, 1992) confirmed that African Yam Bean has West and Central African regions as its areas of domestication, where it is grown for seed and tuberous roots. POTENTIAL OF AYB- A SUPPLEMENTAL FOOD • The concentration of total amino acids ranged from 311 to 603 mg /g, which is comparable to or exceeds that of soybean (444 mg/g). • These concentrations were found to meet the 1973 World Health Organization (WHO) and 1985 FAO/WHO requirements for adults. Oshodi et al. (1995)
• The concentrations of linoleic and linolenic acids, the most important fatty acids essential in the diet for growth, physiological functions and general body maintenance in humans, were found to be acceptable in African Yam Bean at 29.4 and 2.7%, respectively. ANTI-NUTRITIONAL COMPOUNDS • α-galactosidase, inositol phosphate, lectin, and tannins. • Food processing measures-seed dehulling, soaking, and soaking/cooking • anti-nutritional compounds-lectin, have been found to confer some insecticidal properties that can be further exploited to benefit food security by reducing storage losses (Okunola and Machaka, 2000)
NITROGEN FIXING ABILITY • It develops nitrogen-fixing nodules, although attempts have not been made to isolate the endosymbionts. • This ability to fix symbiotically atmospheric nitrogen means that African Yam Bean does not require large amounts of nitrogenous fertilizer to meet its growth demands, thus making its production affordable. REGIONS OF CULTIVATION AND CROPPING SYSTEMS • It is grown as minor intercrop with major crops, such as maize and cassava. • In major areas of production in Zaire, it is grown as an annual where it is propagated by seed.
CLONAL PROPAGATION FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT: STEM CUTTINGS Single node stem cutting from 12 month old plant Simple and Rapid technique Adventitious rooting Affected by; Seasonal variation Auxin concentration Treatment of cutting with 1.0- 5.0g/l IBA Enhance the rooting Invitro culture Applications of protoplast to genetic manipulation Cowpea Soy bean Pigeon pea Adzuki bean Axenic shoot culture from nodal explants were established African yam bean
Vigna subterranea – Bambara ground nut is an annual herb with trailing stem. The two botanical varieties are; Vigna subterranea var. spontanea- wild form Vigna subterranea var.subterranea- Cultivated forms Its chromosome number is 2n=22 It is typically a short day plant. It prefers bright sun light and an average temperature of 20-28⁰C.
A DROUGHT RESILIENT CROP • Bambara groundnut can maintain leaf turgor pressure by osmotic adjustment, reduced leaf area, and operational stomatal regulation. • Canopy development, size, and duration • Biomass accumulation and partitioning • Gas exchange • Osmoregulation and regulation of photosynthesis • Leaf temperature-transpiration (leaf orientation/Para heliotropism) and epicuticular wax. DROUGHT TOLERANCE MECHANISM TOLERANCE ESCAPE AVOIDANCE Bambara groundnut has been adapted to contrasting environments, ranging from cool temperatures at night and high temperatures during the day.
PHOTOPERIOD RESPONSE • The investigations have revealed that the crop requires 12 h photoperiod for maximum pod-set and seed yield ,while under long photoperiods more leaves are produced at the expense of pod formation. (Ogygia 2010) HARD-TO-COOK (HTC) A term which reflects the amount of energy needed to make a grain legume edible. Soybean takes a 3.6-h cooking time which is almost identical to that of Bambara groundnut.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOUNDS : • Bambara groundnut has 367–414 kal/100 mg energy (Boateng et al. 2013). • The gross energy value of Bambara groundnut seed is greater than that of other legumes. • Anti-herbivory factors such as simple protease inhibitors and amino acid β-N-oxalyl-α,β- diamino propionic acid (ODAP). • These lead to paralysis when consumed as the only major food source during periods of famine (Butta et al. 2019). • Simple treatments such as dehulling, soaking, cooking, fermentation, germination and others can potentially reduce antinutritional factors and improve bioavailability.
IITA has around 1910 Accessions collected from 18 countries. GERMPLASAM RESOURCES
MOLECULAR TOOLS AND RESOURCES: • An expression marker-based genetic map containing 218 gene expression markers (GEMs) across 13 linkage groups, spanning 982.7 cM of the Bambara groundnut genome, was developed using, Bambara groundnut leaf ribonucleic acid (RNA) cross hybridisation onto the Affymetrix Soybean Genome GeneChip TO IDENTIFY QTLS INVOLVED IN AGRONOMIC AND DROUGHT-RELATED TRAITS IN BAMBARA GROUNDNUT
• The genus Tylosema belongs to the plant family Fabaceae and subfamily Ceasalpinioideae. • Within this genus five species, which are all endemic to Africa, have been characterized. T. esculentum- most well known and best described of the five species T. fassoglense T. argenteum T. humifusum T. Angolense The generic name Tylosema refers to the torulose (i.e. a cylindrical or ellipsoid body) bean while the word esculentum means edible(beans and tubers).
• The marama bean is endemic to the Kalahari Desert and the neighboring semiarid areas with nutritionally poor sandy soils. • The plant occurs widespread and erratic in Botswana, Namibia and the northern part of South Africa. • T. fassoglense being the most widespread species
MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES • The marama bean is a long-lived and perennial species that generates annually from a large underground tuber, which may contain up to 90% water and hereby acts as a water reserve. (Travlos & Karamanos, 2006). • The plant produces pods, which turn from being soft and reddish over light green to hard woody and dark brown in color when ripe (
NUTRIENTS Lipid content approaches that of peanuts Minerals such as Ca , Zn and Fe are found in amount that much of in Soy bean and peanuts Protein content equals that of soybeans The high protein content makes the marama bean a great nutritive and potential protein- rich food Higher dietary fiber content than flax seeds Dietary fibers are good for the digestive system and may lower the risk of diabetes and heart disease Similar vitamin E content as sunflower seeds Vitamin E acts as a powerful antioxidant and posses potential anti-carcinogenic and anti- inflammatory activities Contains lignans, just like whole grains Lignans are precursors of hormone like compounds found in mammalian system and posses a wide range of health promoting effects in human
Processing and its products
• The areas of genomics and proteomics are rapidly expanding in the field of food and agriculture, medicine, and environment. • Though few genomic studies have been conducted on some underutilized legumes, proteomics and metabolomics have not been employed to explore the rich potentials available in them. • Genome editing provides the possibility to modify the genomes of the legumes particularly for plant architecture, hardness of the seeds, and anti-nutritional factors. • Generally, these sets of legumes have not been subjected to biotechnological techniques/solutions including sophisticated tissue culture micropropagation and genetic engineering which offer great opportunities to improve the species for sustainable utilization.
underutilized legumes

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underutilized legumes

  • 1.
  • 2.
    • In orderto meet the global food demands, focus should be on promoting the cultivation and utilization of crops which have been neglected and underexploited but have the potential to enhance food and nutrition security especially in the developing countries. • The significant roles that legumes play in the food cultures around the world as veritable sources of quality protein, natural medicine, animal fodder, natural fertilizers, and environmental restoration products, alongside the well-established soil enrichment property of symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria should be exploited. • Here it will be discussed about some selected minor legumes with huge potentials to boost protein security in period of hunger and malnutrition.
  • 3.
    • Neglected andUnderutilized Species are identified by certain criteria: LOCAL IMPORTANCE-consumption and production ADAPTATION- Agroecology REPRESENTATION-landraces
  • 4.
    RARE REPRESENTATION -ex situ collections INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE- Cultivation and utilization MAINSTREAM MARKET - Neglect
  • 5.
    • Legumes belongto Family Fabaceae of the Angiospermae and are considered rich in high-quality proteins. • It is divided into grain legumes and pasture/forage legumes. • The grain legumes are grown mainly as pulses providing food for humans • While pasture legumes are cultivated to feed domestic animals. • Based on plant utility and economy, legumes are categorized as Major species Minor species
  • 6.
    • Major legumesare popular and common with well-established domestication and cultivation, agronomic practices, utilization, and conservation. • Examples include Soybean (Glycine max) Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) Groundnut (Arachis hypogea) Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) Pea (Pisum sativum ) Chick pea (Cicer arietinum )
  • 7.
    JACK BEAN Canavalia ensiformis WINGEDBEAN Psophocarpus tetragonalobus SWORD BEAN Canavalia gladiata VELVET BEAN Mucuna pruriens LIMA BEAN Phaseolus lunatus BAMBARA GROUNDNUT BEAN Vigna subterranea MINOR LEGUMES
  • 8.
  • 9.
    • Psophocarpus tetragonolobuspopularly known as winged bean. • Its somatic chromosome number is 2n = 18 and is one of the old legumes. • It is a multipurpose legume plant with all parts being edible. • It is grown in many parts of the humid tropics, including Central and South America, the Caribbean, Africa, Oceania, and Asia. • Rich in vitamins, minerals, protein, and secondary metabolites such as phenolic and flavonoids. • Highly resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses • The seeds of winged bean exhibit tolerance to storage pests. • Protein content of tubers 20% and 10-15% in leaves and flowers.
  • 10.
    High seed yieldwith low shelling percentage Early flowering Synchronization of pod maturity Senescence at the end of growing season High protein and oil content High yield with green pods free from parchment layers High nutritive value
  • 11.
    Selection for lowpod yield Huge vegetative growth High yield and quality tubers with high protein Low fibre content and acceptable flavour
  • 12.
    BREEDING CONSTRAINTS • Indeterminategrowth habit • High cost of labor • Anti-Nutritional Factor • Pod shattering • Late maturing • Low yield • Scandent habit Breeding the photo insensitive variety is another priority to reduce the long gestation period required for flowering and fruiting. At Kyushu University (Japan) some photo insensitive varieties like KUS-8, KUS-15 found promising. Transcriptome sequencing for gene discovery and marker development. BREEDING ACHIVEMENTS POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
  • 13.
    ORIGIN AND ITSPROGENITOR: • The wild African progenitor, P. grandifloras based on its morphological resemblance and shared susceptibility to the fungus Synchytrium psophocarpi. GROWTH HABIT AND PLANT ARCHITECTURE: • Dwarf or determinate winged bean cultivars obtained by Mutagenesis – But no clear evidence is provided. • TILLING – possible approach to obtain determinate growth phenotypes ,but it requires sequence information of target genes. The genomic basis of a determinate shoot apex meristems has been uncovered in other legumes.
  • 14.
    NUTRIENT AND ANITI-NUTRIENTCOMPOSITION: Crude protein content in winged bean is higher than cow pea and pigeon pea. Winged bean oil: • Has high thermal conductivity and oxidative features. • Superior to soy bean oil as used as frying medium. • Rich in Saturated fatty acid thereby making it less preferred. It is suggested to be used in food formulation system by blending with wheat or cow pea flour and used as composite flours.
  • 15.
    MATURE SEED CONSUMPTION: 1)Hardseed coat that adheres tightly to the cotyledons could hampered cookability and digestion of winged bean mature seeds. 2)Anti-nutritional factors • Identification of genes involved in tannin content as well as other anti-nutritional factors. • Cooking methods like Autoclave or Boiling has also been investigated. Development of Easy-to-cook varieties of winged bean without compromising on its nutritional content – Breeding objective
  • 16.
    Effect of daylength and temperature on reproductive development • Winged bean is a short day species and exhibits photothermal sensitivity. • Flower bud development is inhibited during long day condition. • Studies reveal that both temperature and day length control the onset of flowering and tuberization. Nodulation and N₂ fixation Activity • Nodulation and N fixing activity could be used in aiming development of improved winged bean varieties for Mixed agricultural system. • It was reported that lighter seed coat colour was associated with increased nodules per plant.
  • 18.
    • Sword bean(Canavalia gladiata ) is species in the genus Canavalia of the Fabaceae family • It is a vigorous perennial climber plant usually cultivated as an annual. • Reports indicated that sword bean originated from the Asian continent and is now known in the tropics as an introduced species. • The red sword bean is one of the edible beans of China reportedly rich in antioxidant polyphenols with great medicinal uses. • The seed coat of the bean is rich in gallic acid and its derivatives, mainly gallotannins, a common trait found in legume polyphenols. • The chemical composition of seeds of sword bean has been reported and compares quite well with soybean . • The sword bean is relatively resistant to attack from pests and diseases.
  • 19.
    • ANTI NUTRITIONALFACTORS: Canavanine • HARD SEED COAT: • Overnight soaking and boiling in excess water followed by decanting gave the most pronounced reduction in canavanine content( 50%) • Roasting and Autoclaving were less effective in reducing the canavanine content. • Soaked seed after mechanical Scarification in distilled water germinated faster than non-soaked seeds. • The rate of germination was 98% in scarified and 68% in non- scarified soaked seeds.
  • 20.
    NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION • Redsword bean-Edible bean cultivated in china. • The polyphenols Gallic acid and Gallotannins- Responsible for the red colour. ANTIMICROBIALACTIVITY OF SWORD BEAN: • Ethanol Extracts of Sword bean showed strong activity against food poisoning Bacteria (Vibro parahemolyticus) after 9 hours of inoculation. (Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety) RED SWORD BEAN COAT Excellent Natural source of Gallotannins and their extracts can be utilized as Natural Antioxidant and Antibacterial Agents in food Industry.
  • 21.
    SWORD BEAN- SHADESENSITIVE • Investigation taken to study the response of sword bean under different light conditions. Low light condition makes the crop Unfit for Consumption. Low light (shade condition) Plant height Chlorophyll content Low light (shade condition) Dry matter production Specific Leaf weight Yield
  • 22.
    • Sword beanflowers are visited by bees and 20% or more cross pollination occurs ( Kooi,1993) • Bagged flowers set pods and seeds indicating perfect self compatibility. (peter,1998) • Crossing proves difficult as the flowers are very sensitive and therefore bud pollination is recommended. • In south east Asia , sword bean cultivars have been developed with reduced toxicity. • Hybrids of Canavalia gladiata with both Canavalia ensiformis and Canavalia africana have occurred from natural crosses.
  • 23.
    • To increasethe use of Canavalia green fruits and young seeds as vegetable, IMPROVED CULTIVARS EITHER BY INTRODUCTION OR BY BREEDING. CULTIVARS WITH APPEALING TEXTURE AND REDUCED ANTI – NUTRITIONAL FACTORS.
  • 24.
    • Canavalia ensiformisis the most economically important species in the genus Canavalia, with enormous potentials to serve as food for both humans and livestock . • It is in large-scale cultivation in Congo and Angola . • It is rich in protein and thrives well in poor and acidic soils. • Jack bean is mainly grown for its nutritious pods, seeds, and as fodder. • It is a forage crop with high green manure capacity to enrich the soils and also to control soil erosion. • It possesses deep root system which enables the plant to penetrate deeply into the soil. • Raw jack bean contains toxic compounds such as tannin, phytate, saponins, canavanine, concanavalin A (hemagglutinin), and trypsin inhibitors.
  • 25.
    NUTRITIONAL FACTORS: BUT THEANTI- NUTRITIONAL COMPOUNDS WOULD KILL ME..
  • 26.
    ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS: • Thesecompounds restricts its utilization as human food. DETOXIFICATION: THERMO-STABLE FACTORS • canavanine • concanavalin • canavalin • canatoxin THERMO-LABILE FACTORS • protease inhibitors • lectins • phytic acid AUTOCLAVING BOILING AND SOAKING EXTRUSION FERMENTATION CHEMICAL TREATMENTS
  • 27.
    ALLELOPATHIC EFFECT OFJACK BEAN: • Magalhães and Franco (1962) observed an inhibitory effect on the budding of sedge tubers (Cyprus rotundus) • Anaya (1999) found that C. ensiformis leaves, when added to the soil, inhibited more than 50% of the incidence of root nematodes in tomato plants. C. ensiformis has a strong inhibitory influence, and extracts obtained with solvents with higher dielectric constants were the most efficient at inhibiting the germination
  • 28.
    • In westerncountries it is used as a cover crop and the roasted seeds are ground to prepare coffee-like drink (Bresson et al., 1987). • In Nigeria C. ensiformis, is grown as ornamental plant, planted near houses and allowed to trail on walls and trees, believed to repel snakes (Abiodun and Lashanda, 2012). FUTURE PROSPECTS Development of improved cultivars with reduced anti-nutritional factors. Development of therapeutic drugs- CONCANAVALIN Exploitation of Allelopathic effects in various crops.
  • 29.
    • Lima bean– Phaseolus lunates ,rich in protein. • Lima bean is grown for its edible seeds and as leafy vegetable in the Caribbean, Peru, Mexico, and Asian regions . • It is resistant to viral and rust diseases and withstand insect pests, drought, and abiotic stress. • The species also tolerates different levels of aluminum and manganese toxicity.
  • 30.
    CYANOGENESIS OF WILDLIMA: DIRECT DEFENCE NATURE (Daniel J. Ballhorn, Stefanie Kautz, Martin Heil, 2009) • A prominent experimental model plant for studies of inducible indirect plant defences against herbivores. • These indirect (carnivore attracting) defences include the release of herbivore-induced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and secretion of extrafloral nectar (EFN). • VOCs of lima bean play a role in defence-associated signaling between plants. • A characteristic direct chemical defence of lima bean is cyanogenesis, i.e. the release of toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN) from preformed cyanide-containing compounds in response to cell damage.
  • 31.
    • Plants donot rely on a single defence mechanism, but rather express multiple defences comprising the constitutive and induced synthesis of many chemical compounds. • The combination of different traits often leads to the evolution of multiple defence syndromes. CROP IMPORVEMNET STUDIES : Lima beans types widely grown are:  Baby lima beans  Ford hook lima beans  Hybrid pole lima beans
  • 33.
    • The genusMucuna, belonging to the Fabaceae family. • Cowitch and cowhage are the common English names of Mucuna types with abundant, long stinging hairs on the pod. • It is cultivated in Asia, America, Africa, and the Pacific Islands, where its pods are used as a vegetable for human consumption, and its young leaves are used as animal fodder. • Toxic compounds are L-dopa and hallucinogenic tryptamines, and anti-nutritional factors such as phenols and tannins (Awang et al., 1997).
  • 34.
    PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS OFVELEVT BEAN ANTI-VENOM PLANT SEEDS WATER PROTEINS Anti-microbial PLANT LEAVES METHANOL TANNINS ALKALOIDS L-DOPA NEUROPROTECTIVE PLANT SEEDS, WHOLE PLANT ETHANOL/WATER N-PROPANOL L-DOPA AMINO ACIDS ALKALOIDS ISOQUINOLINES ANTI-DIABETIC PLANT SEEDS ETHANOL/WATER(1:1) CYCLITOLS OLIGOSACCHARIDES ANTI-OXIDANT PLANT SEEDS, LEAVES,WHOLE PLANT METHANOL PHENOLS TANNINS
  • 35.
    BIOACTIVE COMPONDS INVELVET BEAN (Medicinal properties, potential antioxidant activity) Total free phenols Tannins phytic acid L-Dopa Indigenous methods Results SOAKING IN TAMARIND SOLUTION AND COOKING Significant reduction of all bio-active compounds SOAKING IN ALKALINE SOLUTION AND COOKING Significant and aggressive reduction of all bio-active compounds SPROUTING AND OIL-FRYING Reduction of total phenols and tannins OPEN-PAN ROASTING Slightly increases the phenol content and minimal loss of L-Dopa
  • 36.
    INCORPORATION OF VELVETBEAN: alternative protein source in poultry feed. • Soaking in 0.2% sodium bicarbonate solution + autoclaving treatment- to reduce Antinutritional compounds. • Replacement of soybean meal protein up to 40% level, which corresponds to the inclusion of velvet bean meal up to 15.7% and 11% in the starter and finisher phase poultry feeds, respectively, exhibited better growth performance of broiler birds without any adverse effects. PARKINSON DISEASE: • The main phenolic compound of Mucuna seeds is L-dopa , a precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine(approximately 5%) (Vadivel and Pukalenthi, 2008). • Mucuna is widely studied because L-dopa is a substance used as a first-line treatment for Parkinson's disease.
  • 37.
    ANTI-PARKINSONS ACTIVITY OFSILVER INDONESIAN VELVET Beans-seed extract nanoparticles Utilization of plant extracts that have anti-Parkinson activity-velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens L.). Changing the particle size of the extract into nanoscale particle is expected to increase its anti- Parkinson activity. 1.The research was conducted to synthesize silver-velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens L.) seed extract nanoparticles (AgMPn) and to evaluate its antiparkinsonian activity through the catalepsy test in mice. 2.Catalepsy test demonstrated that AgMPn at the doses of 5, 15, and 20 mg/kg body weight lowered the catalepsy symptoms in mice significantly, with the best dose was 5 mg/kg body weight.
  • 38.
    • African YamBean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) is one of seven species of the genus Sphenostylis • It occurs in dry forests and in open or forested savannas in tropical and Southern Africa. • The plant is perennial; the stems often have a reddish pigmentation and are glabrous and woody near their bases • Roots develop tubers that are rich in starch and serve as organs of perennation when the aerial parts die during the dry season (National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Kul et al., 2001) • The plants bear purple to magenta colored flowers on pseudo racemes. • The pods each contain 20 to 30 seeds that mature about 30 days after fertilization (Kul et al., 2001). • The seeds are brown, white, speckled or marbled in color.
  • 39.
    ORIGIN • The occurrenceof wild races can also be traced to East and Southern African regions. • A study of chloroplast DNA and linguistic data (Potter and Doyle, 1992) confirmed that African Yam Bean has West and Central African regions as its areas of domestication, where it is grown for seed and tuberous roots. POTENTIAL OF AYB- A SUPPLEMENTAL FOOD • The concentration of total amino acids ranged from 311 to 603 mg /g, which is comparable to or exceeds that of soybean (444 mg/g). • These concentrations were found to meet the 1973 World Health Organization (WHO) and 1985 FAO/WHO requirements for adults. Oshodi et al. (1995)
  • 40.
    • The concentrationsof linoleic and linolenic acids, the most important fatty acids essential in the diet for growth, physiological functions and general body maintenance in humans, were found to be acceptable in African Yam Bean at 29.4 and 2.7%, respectively. ANTI-NUTRITIONAL COMPOUNDS • α-galactosidase, inositol phosphate, lectin, and tannins. • Food processing measures-seed dehulling, soaking, and soaking/cooking • anti-nutritional compounds-lectin, have been found to confer some insecticidal properties that can be further exploited to benefit food security by reducing storage losses (Okunola and Machaka, 2000)
  • 41.
    NITROGEN FIXING ABILITY •It develops nitrogen-fixing nodules, although attempts have not been made to isolate the endosymbionts. • This ability to fix symbiotically atmospheric nitrogen means that African Yam Bean does not require large amounts of nitrogenous fertilizer to meet its growth demands, thus making its production affordable. REGIONS OF CULTIVATION AND CROPPING SYSTEMS • It is grown as minor intercrop with major crops, such as maize and cassava. • In major areas of production in Zaire, it is grown as an annual where it is propagated by seed.
  • 42.
    CLONAL PROPAGATION FORCROP IMPROVEMENT: STEM CUTTINGS Single node stem cutting from 12 month old plant Simple and Rapid technique Adventitious rooting Affected by; Seasonal variation Auxin concentration Treatment of cutting with 1.0- 5.0g/l IBA Enhance the rooting Invitro culture Applications of protoplast to genetic manipulation Cowpea Soy bean Pigeon pea Adzuki bean Axenic shoot culture from nodal explants were established African yam bean
  • 43.
    Vigna subterranea –Bambara ground nut is an annual herb with trailing stem. The two botanical varieties are; Vigna subterranea var. spontanea- wild form Vigna subterranea var.subterranea- Cultivated forms Its chromosome number is 2n=22 It is typically a short day plant. It prefers bright sun light and an average temperature of 20-28⁰C.
  • 44.
    A DROUGHT RESILIENTCROP • Bambara groundnut can maintain leaf turgor pressure by osmotic adjustment, reduced leaf area, and operational stomatal regulation. • Canopy development, size, and duration • Biomass accumulation and partitioning • Gas exchange • Osmoregulation and regulation of photosynthesis • Leaf temperature-transpiration (leaf orientation/Para heliotropism) and epicuticular wax. DROUGHT TOLERANCE MECHANISM TOLERANCE ESCAPE AVOIDANCE Bambara groundnut has been adapted to contrasting environments, ranging from cool temperatures at night and high temperatures during the day.
  • 45.
    PHOTOPERIOD RESPONSE • Theinvestigations have revealed that the crop requires 12 h photoperiod for maximum pod-set and seed yield ,while under long photoperiods more leaves are produced at the expense of pod formation. (Ogygia 2010) HARD-TO-COOK (HTC) A term which reflects the amount of energy needed to make a grain legume edible. Soybean takes a 3.6-h cooking time which is almost identical to that of Bambara groundnut.
  • 46.
    NUTRITIONAL COMPOUNDS : •Bambara groundnut has 367–414 kal/100 mg energy (Boateng et al. 2013). • The gross energy value of Bambara groundnut seed is greater than that of other legumes. • Anti-herbivory factors such as simple protease inhibitors and amino acid β-N-oxalyl-α,β- diamino propionic acid (ODAP). • These lead to paralysis when consumed as the only major food source during periods of famine (Butta et al. 2019). • Simple treatments such as dehulling, soaking, cooking, fermentation, germination and others can potentially reduce antinutritional factors and improve bioavailability.
  • 47.
    IITA has around1910 Accessions collected from 18 countries. GERMPLASAM RESOURCES
  • 48.
    MOLECULAR TOOLS ANDRESOURCES: • An expression marker-based genetic map containing 218 gene expression markers (GEMs) across 13 linkage groups, spanning 982.7 cM of the Bambara groundnut genome, was developed using, Bambara groundnut leaf ribonucleic acid (RNA) cross hybridisation onto the Affymetrix Soybean Genome GeneChip TO IDENTIFY QTLS INVOLVED IN AGRONOMIC AND DROUGHT-RELATED TRAITS IN BAMBARA GROUNDNUT
  • 49.
    • The genusTylosema belongs to the plant family Fabaceae and subfamily Ceasalpinioideae. • Within this genus five species, which are all endemic to Africa, have been characterized. T. esculentum- most well known and best described of the five species T. fassoglense T. argenteum T. humifusum T. Angolense The generic name Tylosema refers to the torulose (i.e. a cylindrical or ellipsoid body) bean while the word esculentum means edible(beans and tubers).
  • 50.
    • The maramabean is endemic to the Kalahari Desert and the neighboring semiarid areas with nutritionally poor sandy soils. • The plant occurs widespread and erratic in Botswana, Namibia and the northern part of South Africa. • T. fassoglense being the most widespread species
  • 51.
    MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES • Themarama bean is a long-lived and perennial species that generates annually from a large underground tuber, which may contain up to 90% water and hereby acts as a water reserve. (Travlos & Karamanos, 2006). • The plant produces pods, which turn from being soft and reddish over light green to hard woody and dark brown in color when ripe (
  • 52.
    NUTRIENTS Lipid content approaches thatof peanuts Minerals such as Ca , Zn and Fe are found in amount that much of in Soy bean and peanuts Protein content equals that of soybeans The high protein content makes the marama bean a great nutritive and potential protein- rich food Higher dietary fiber content than flax seeds Dietary fibers are good for the digestive system and may lower the risk of diabetes and heart disease Similar vitamin E content as sunflower seeds Vitamin E acts as a powerful antioxidant and posses potential anti-carcinogenic and anti- inflammatory activities Contains lignans, just like whole grains Lignans are precursors of hormone like compounds found in mammalian system and posses a wide range of health promoting effects in human
  • 53.
  • 54.
    • The areasof genomics and proteomics are rapidly expanding in the field of food and agriculture, medicine, and environment. • Though few genomic studies have been conducted on some underutilized legumes, proteomics and metabolomics have not been employed to explore the rich potentials available in them. • Genome editing provides the possibility to modify the genomes of the legumes particularly for plant architecture, hardness of the seeds, and anti-nutritional factors. • Generally, these sets of legumes have not been subjected to biotechnological techniques/solutions including sophisticated tissue culture micropropagation and genetic engineering which offer great opportunities to improve the species for sustainable utilization.

Editor's Notes

  • #14 Target induced local lesions in genomes