The document discusses research and its characteristics. It defines research as a systematic process of investigating a problem to find solutions. Key aspects include being systematic, objective, valid and justifiable. Research aims to acquire knowledge through various means such as intuition, logic, authority and experience. However, research differs in being scientific, rigorous and reliable. The document also covers research types, variables, process, proposal, problem, objectives, questions and significance.

1. By Dr. Mutta
GS Dept

2.  Research is an examination, exploration, or
investigation of a phenomenon/event to get a
solution to a problem.
 A systematic study carried out to discover
facts needed to make appropriate decisions.
 A way of getting solutions to problems through a
planned systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data.
 Research then is the process of systematic
collection, analysis and interpretation of data
in order to make decision and solve problems

3. b) Characteristics of Research
 Systematic-the procedures adopted to undertake
an investigation follow a certain logical sequence.
For example: problem identification, review of
literature, etc.
 Objective- since it is systematic, it is unbiased
since it is free from personal feelings.
 Valid and justifiable-your conclusion based on
findings is correct and can be verified by
everyone.
 Controlled-one should set up a study in a way
that minimizes the effects of other factors
affecting the relationship

4. b) Characteristics of research
 Rigorous- the procedures used to find
answers to the questions should be relevant,
scrupulous and meticulous
 Reliability –means whether or not
measurements are consistent, i.e. if similar
findings will be achieved if a study is
repeated.

5. c) Means for acquiring knowledge
 Research is not the only means for getting knowledge.
(i)There are also other means apart from research.
 Intuition-getting knowledge through a quick insight
without relying on rational reasoning. The knowledge
comes from past experience. It is based on personal
insight or instinct.
 Logic-getting knowledge through correct reasoning. E.g.
John stole my money in the room since he was the only
person I left in the room
 Authority-accepting new ideas because some authority
figures state that they are true. Some authority figures
include: parents, priests, doctors, etc.
 Experience-understanding based on one’s life experience.
E.g. All writing boards are black (just because no exposure
to black boards).

6.  1. Explain, with relevant examples the
significance of research to; (a) the
development of Tanzania (b) the engineering
sector in Tanzania.
 2. Why does the community of scientists trust
research as the best source of knowledge?
 3. Why is research regarded as a scientific
approach to seeking answers to problems?
 What makes research different from other
means for acquiring knowledge such as:
logic, experience, instinct, authority, etc.

7.  Research can be categorized based on three
perspectives;
 i) Application of the findings of research
study,
 ii) Objective of the study,
 iii) Mode of inquiry.

8.  Application perspective: It can be
categorized into two parts; (how research
results are used)
 i) Pure or basic/fundamental/primary
research: It is regarded as the mother of
science. It mainly focuses on knowledge
generation. Invention, discovery and
scientific creativity have been made
possible by this type of research. Theories
and scientific laws have been created
through this type.

9.  ii) Applied research: This is concerned with using
research findings to solve a problem or formulate
policies, principles . Research knowledge is used to
solve some other problems such as formulating a
policy.
 Objective perspective:
 i) Descriptive research: Describes a situation, problem,
phenomenon, service or program or provides
information about the living condition of a community,
or describes attitudes towards an issue.
 ii) Correlational research :Attempts to
discover/establish the existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence between two
or more aspects of a situation.

10.  iii) Explanatory research: Focuses on
clarifying why and how there is a relationship
between two aspects of a
situation/phenomenon.
 iv) Exploratory research: This is done with the
objectives of either to explore an area where
little is known or investigate the possibilities
of undertaking a particular research study.

11.  Mode of inquiry: What methods do you
apply in getting your findings?
 i) The qualitative research: Variables
findings are described qualitatively. They
are assigned qualitative value, i.e. are
assigned word value.
 ii) Quantitative research: Variables are
expressed in quantity, i.e. they are assigned
numerical value. Variables/phenomena,
data, are quantitatively expressed.

12.  Variables
 A variable refers to a factor of characteristics of
interest that a researcher would like to handle, observe,
investigate or manipulate in the research process. e.g.
age, sex, height, weight, level of empowerment, etc.
 Types of variables
 a) Independent variables: also known as explanatory
variables
 These are factors which explain variation in the
dependent variables. (In other words these are the
causes/causing factors). . Example, there is a significant
difference between academic performance and long
distance from home to school.

13.  b) Dependent variables: It is the outcome results the
researcher is attempting to predict. Variation in the
dependant variable is what the researcher is trying to explain.
Usually there is only one dependent variable.
 c) Extraneous variables: It refers to as any variable other than
the independent variable that could cause change in the
dependent variable. It is also defined as any variable that
you are not intentionally studying in your research but can
threaten the internal validity of your results.
 Example: If a teacher wants to test the hypothesis that there
is a relationship between students’ performance in English
and their hard work, then, there is the issue of intelligence,
which is an extraneous variable.

14.  A journey which a researcher takes from the initial
point to the last point of the study.
 This process entails steps which are logically
arranged to enable a researcher meet the targeted
objective(s).
 There are two main parts which a researcher needs to
develop in order to complete the research process.
 The research has to develop a research proposal at
the beginning of the process and end with a research
report as the final document showing the results and
implications of the research done.

15.  Research proposal: shows what is to be done,
where, when, how and for what reasons. It is the
researcher’s guide towards getting a solution to
the research problem. The research proposal
includes three main chapters.
 A research proposal has three main parts
(chapters)
 Chapter one(Introduction)
 Chapter two (Literature review)
 Chapter three (Research methodology)

16. Steps
a) Selecting a topic:
 Subject, issue or area under study
Area of interest of the researcher
What puzzles a researcher
b) Narrowing down the area of study
to a manageable unit of knowledge

17. A research title has the following characteristics;
 It signals what the research is all about
 It indicates the research problem
 It indicates the variable (s)
 It shows the task of the researcher (through action verb)
 It may signal the time and location of the research
Examples of research titles
 1. ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECT OF MOTIVATION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN TANZANIA
 2.AN EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF STRATEGIC STRESS
MANAGEMENT ON EMPLOYEE WORK PERFORMANCE: a CASE
STUDY OF NIMRI WORKERS FROM 2000 TO 2010 IN TANZANIA

18.  A research problem is a challenge a
researcher faces in his practical or theoretical
experience.
 A research problem is different from normal
life problem such as hunger or disease.
 Unlike normal life problem, research problem
has to be stated by the researcher for it to be
a problem.

19. Characteristics of a research problem
 Can be stated clearly and concisely.
 Generates research questions.
 It is grounded in theory.
 It relates to one or more academic fields of study.
 It has a base in the research literature.
 It has potential significance/importance.
 It is do-able within the time frame, budget.
 Sufficient data are available or can be obtained.
 The researcher’s methodological strengths can be
applied to the problem.
 The problem is new; it is not already answered
sufficiently.

20.  Chapter one (Introduction) entails;
i. The background to the study
ii. Statement of the research problem
iii. Objective of the study (General and Specific)
iv. Research question/Hypothesis
v. Significance of study
vi. Scope of the study
vii. Limitation of the study

21.  Background information identifies and describes the
history and nature of a well-defined research
problem with reference to the existing literature.
 it indicates the root of the problem being studied,
appropriate context of the problem in relation to
theory, research, and/or practice, its scope.
 It indicates the extent to which previous studies have
successfully investigated the problem, noting, in
particular, where gaps exist that your study attempts
to address.
 Background to the problem does not replace the
literature review section of a research paper; it is
intended to place the research problem in a proper
context.

22.  Put the problem in context (what do we
already know?)
 Describe the precise issue that the research
will address (what do we need to know?)
 Show the relevance of the problem (why do
we need to know it?)
 Set the objectives of the research (what will
you do to find out?)

23.  Research objectives describe concisely what the
research is trying to achieve.
 They summarize the accomplishments a researcher
wishes to achieve through the project and provides
direction to the study.
 A research objective must be achievable, i.e., it must
be framed keeping in mind the available time,
infrastructure required for research, and other
resources.
 Before forming a research objective, you should read
about all the developments in your area of research
and find gaps in knowledge that need to be
addressed.
 This will help you come up with suitable objectives
for your research project.

24.  Specific objectives break down the general
objective into smaller, logically connected
parts that systematically address the various
aspects of the problem.
 Each objective should begin with a verb that
describes an observable behavior, such as
"describe, summarize, demonstrate, compare,
plan, score", etc. You can observe the
participant and measure how well the
objective was met.

25.  General objective:
 The general objective of this study is to
examine the contribution of community
participation in enhancing sustainability of
natural resources management in Shinyanga
district.

26.  Specific objectives:
Specifically the study intends to:
 Identify the main natural resources in Shinyanga
district.
 Determine the extent of community participation
in natural resource management in Shinyanga
district.
 Examine the quality of community participation
in natural resource management in Shinyanga
district.
 Evaluate the impact of community participation
on natural resource management in Shinyanga
district.

27.  A research question is a question that a
research project sets out to answer
 Good research questions seek to improve
knowledge on an important topic, and are
usually narrow and specific
 To form a research question, one must
determine what type of study will be
conducted such as a qualitative, quantitative,
or mixed study.

28.  This study will be guided by the following
questions:
 1. What are natural resources in Shinyanga
district?
 2. To what extent does the community
participate in the natural resource management
in Shinyanga district?
 3. How is the community participation in terms of
quality?
 4. How does community participation influence
natural resource management in Shinyanga
district?

29.  A prediction of the research results
 Such a prediction may be based on a formal
theory or an educated guess
 Examples:
 1. First grade 1 girls will show better reading
comprehension than grade 1 boys.
 The hypothesis predicts the relationship of the
two variables; gender v/s comprehension
 2. Children who are shown a video with violence
will be more aggressive in playground compared
to those who were shown a non-violent video.

30.  Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis;
 Experimental hypothesis suggests that in testing
the hypothesis the experiment will be used.
Example 2 is one of the example
 Children who are shown a video with violence will
be more aggressive in playground compared to
those who were shown a non-violent video.
 Non-experimental, the hypothesis does not
suggest experiment in testing hypothesis.
Example 2;

31.  Example 1; First grade 1 girls will show better
reading comprehension than grade 1 boys.
Directional and non-directional hypothesis
Directional hypothesis;
 A directional hypothesis is a prediction made
by a researcher regarding a positive or
negative change, relationship, or difference
between two variables of a population.
 This prediction is typically based on past
research, accepted theory, extensive
experience, or literature on the topic

32.  Key words that distinguish a directional
hypothesis are: higher, lower, more, less,
increase, decrease, positive, and negative
 Examples 1&2 are directional hypothesis
 Non-directional hypothesis simply states the
difference of variables without showing the
direction of the difference
 Example; the child-rearing practices of Tribe
A are different from those of Tribe B.

33.  Research questions therefore are stated like non
directional hypothesis
 Example: what is the difference between rearing
practices of children in Tribe A and that of Tribe
B?
 NB: the choice of research questions and
research hypothesis is a matter of personal taste.
Null and alternative hypothesis; - Null: This is a
hypothesis that proposes no relationship or
difference between two variables, It is denoted as
H0 . Alternative:

34.  The rejection of the null hypothesis indicates that
the differences have statistical significance and
the acceptance of the null hypothesis indicates
that the differences are due to chance.
 Alternative hypothesis: It proposes a relationship
between two or more variables, symbolized as
H1.Examples
 H1:Music at a fast tempo is rated by participants
as being happier than music at a slow tempo. H0:
Music at a fast tempo and at a slow tempo is
rated the same in happiness by participants.

35.  Questions
 1. what are the characteristics of a good
hypothesis?
 Explain with examples the importance of the
hypothesis to a researcher

36.  The significance of the study is a section in
the introduction of your thesis or paper.
 Its purpose is to make clear why your study
was needed and the specific contribution
your research will make to furthering
academic knowledge in your field
 The parties/people/or organizations to
benefit from the study made should be
identified
 How they will benefit should also be
indicated.

37.  The scope of a study explains the extent to
which the research area will be explored in
the work and specifies the parameters within
the study.
 Basically, this means that you will have to
define what the study is going to cover and
what it is focusing on
 Similarly, you also have to define what the
study is not going to cover.

38.  Are those characteristics of design or
methodology that may impact or influence
the interpretation of the findings.
 Are the constraints placed on the ability to
generalize from the results, to internal and
external validity
 Are result of unanticipated challenges that
emerged during the study (once you have
done the study)


39.  A literature review is an account of what has
been published on a topic by accredited
scholars and researchers.
 In writing the literature review, your purpose
is to convey to your reader what knowledge
and ideas have been established on a topic,
and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
 the literature review must be defined by a
guiding concept (e.g., your research
objective, the problem or issue you are
discussing or your argumentative thesis)

40.  Literature review must be defined by a guiding
concept (e.g., your research objective, the
problem or issue you are discussing or your
argumentative thesis)
 Function of literature review
It provides theoretical background
 It enables one to refine research methodology
 It enables one to define your contribution to
knowledge
 It enables one to contextualize your findings
 Helps to avoid unnecessary duplication
 Helps to evaluate promising research methods

41.  In reviewing literature one should;
 be organized around the research question you
are developing
 synthesize results into a summary of what is and
is not known (highlight gaps in research)
 identify areas of controversy in the literature
 formulate questions that need further research
 compare and contrast different authors' views on
an issue
 group authors who draw similar conclusions
 criticize aspects of methodology
 note areas in which authors are in disagreement

42.  highlight exemplary studies
 show how your study relates to previous
studies
 show how your study relates to the literature
in general
 conclude by summarizing what the literature
says

43.  Critical evaluation of literature
 Have you organized your material according to
issues?
 Is there logic to the way you organized the
material?
 Does the amount of detail included on an issue
relate to its importance?
 Have you been sufficiently critical of design and
methodological issues?
 Have you indicated when results were conflicting
or inconclusive and discussed possible reasons?
 Have you indicated the relevance of each
reference to your research?

44.  Has your summary of the current literature
contributed to the reader's understanding of
the problems?
 Does the design of your research reflect the
methodological implications of the literature
review?
 What is missing? (Study gap)

45.  This chapter provides the details about the
research methods and techniques used in data
collection and data analysis for the study.
 Research methodology refers to the approach
the researcher takes in carrying out a research
project
 Research methodology is organized under the
following sub-sections; research design, research
site, population, sampling technique, research
instruments, data collection procedures and data
analysis, ethics, validity and reliability

46.  Research design: A research design is a
systematic plan to study a scientific problem.
 How all of the major parts of the research project
work together to address the research problem.
 The design of a study defines:
 The study type (descriptive, correlational, case
study, experimental designs)
 Sampling design, research questions,
 hypotheses,
 Independent and dependent variables,
 Experimental design, and, if applicable, data
collection methods and a statistical analysis plan.

47.  Research design is the framework that has
been created to seek answers to research
questions.
 the design includes an outline of what the
researcher will do from writing the hypothesis
and its operational implications to the final
analysis of data.
 More explicitly, the design decisions happen
to be in respect of:

48.  What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?

49.  Descriptive design
 Provides descriptions of the state of affairs as
it exists.
 Experimental design
 In this design the investigator directly
manipulates some factor and holds others
constant.
 The investigator observes effect of indep.
Varbl on dep.varbl;.i.e. effects of ‘x’ on ‘y’

50.  Experimental design (cont…)
 The manipulated variable is known as indp.v
and one we intend to measure its effects is
called dep. v.
 For e.g. You might be testing a new fertilizer:
one farm receives the fertilizer, the other one
not.

51.  Correlational design
 Enables the researcher to assess the degree
of r/ship btn two or more variables
 For e.g. you compare the exam perf. of a
group of univ. students who prepare their
own meals everyday and those eating at the
cafeteria

52.  Case Study
 A single unit in a study.
 It can be a person, an organization like a
clinic, hospital, university, club, etc.
 Is an intensive description and analysis of a
certain issue/object/unit/situation as a whole
 The design helps in making an in-depth and
multi-faced investigation of the problem.

53.  Cross-cultural Design
 Used to compare behvr patterns of diff.
cultures
 With the design you can perceive how various
cultures perceive certain social and eductnl
outcomes
 E.g. you can compare the perf. of students in
English in rural and urban schools and find
out to what extent cultural variations
influence students’ performance.

54.  It is where people conduct research.
 Common sites include hospitals, universities,
research institutes, etc.

55.  A group of individuals, objects or items from
which the samples are taken for
measurements.
 It is important to determine the study pop as
well as the demographic features such as
gender, age and class/status of the
population.
 This is because the greater the diversity and
differences in the pop, the greater the sample
size and reliability

56.  Population sample
 It is any subset or subgroup of the population
 Or a small part taken from the whole pop for
research purposes
 Qualities of an effective population sample
 Diversity-the greater the diversity and
differences, the higher the applicability of
findings to the entire pop
 Representativeness
If, for example, the study is on the effect of the
slum environment on the basic education, it is
important that the majority of pop come from slum
environment.

57.  Qualities of an effective pop sample
 Accessibility-an affective pop sample is one
accessible to the researcher
 Knowledge-an effective pop sample should
have some ideas of the topic for investigation
 Respondents
 In research, ‘respondents’ refer to those who
will reply to, or respond to the research
instruments
 Other names for ‘respondents’ include
‘informants’ and ‘subjects’

58.  Sampling
 It is the act, process or technique of selecting
a suitable sample or representative part of a
pop.
 Sample size
 It is the exact no. of items selected from a
pop to constitute a sample. The larger the
sample size, the lower the likely error in
generalizing.

59.  SD
 is part of the research plan indicating how
cases are to be selected for observation.
 Types of SDs
 Probability sampling
 Non-probability sampling

60.  It is a sampling type in which every member
in the pop has a probability/chance of being
selected to form a sample.
 In PS, selection is random. PS is divided into:
 Simple random sampling
 Stratified random sampling
 Systematic random sampling
 Cluster random sampling

61.  In this sampling, each member of the target
pop has equal chance of inclusion in the
sample.
 The method is ‘simple’ as no complexities are
involved
Advantages
 Permits generalization of the data obtained
 Provide equal chance for each pop to form a
sample

62. Disadvantages
 Bias in selection is common
 Not the most statistically efficient method of
sampling. Subgroups may not be represented
 Non-response error is high. Some members
selected may have moved to other areas.

63.  This type is used when a large pop is involved
 The type involves selecting the sample at
regular interval from sampling frame, i.e.
every nth term.
i.e. k=N/n where k=Systematic sampling
interval, N=pop. size, n =Sample size
 E.g. if a sample of 400 elements is to be
selected form the target pop of 2000
elements, a sample is obtained
by:2000/400=5. This means that every fifth
element in the pop is to be selected.

64. Advantages
 Less tedious and more time saving
 Saves cost compared to simple random
sampling
 Bias is minimized
 Subjects are spread over the pop while in SRS
members close to each other can be picked
 Convenient for a larger pop

65. Disadvantages
 Less random than simple random sampling
 Data manipulation is possible as the
researcher may reorder or restructure a
dataset leading to decreased data validity

66.  A pop is div/partitioned into subgroups/pops
(strata) followed by simple random sampling
 Appropriate when interest is on issues related
to age or gender disparities in a pop.
 The sample is selected to ensure certain
subgroups in the pop are represented in a
sample as per their proportion in a pop.
 Pop can be divided into sub-pop, e.g.,
gender, marital status, age, occupation,
religion, etc.

67. Advantages
 It enables representation of not only overall
pop but subgroup esp. small minority groups
Disadvantages
 If uncarefully stratified, some sub-groups
may be unrepresented leading to bias

68.  It is used when the pop is dispersed across a
wide geographical area, e.g., country,
regional and provincial pop.
 It allows for the division of pop into clusters.
E.g. a survey of all schools in Tz will require
visiting all regions. But by using cluster
sampling, one can choose 2 districts per each
region for survey

69. Advantages
 It is cheaper as it selects only certain groups
from the entire pop
Disadvantages
 There is a risk of missing some sub-groups

70.  It is a biased sampling procedure as it does
not provide and basis for inclusion of a
member of a pop in a sample.
Types of Non-probability sampling
 Purposive/deliberate/judgement sampling
 Quota sampling
 Snowball sampling
 Convenience sampling

71.  Purposive sampling
 Also called judgmental sampling because the
decision to include an element/item in a sample
rests of the researcher’s judgement or intuition
 In the method, the researcher purposely targets a
group believed to be suitable for the study.
 For example, in studying the effects of abortion
on learning, the researcher may contact students
who previously had abortion
 The power of ps lies in selecting information rich
cases for in-depth analysis on the relevant issue

72.  Snowball/chain sampling
 This is a type of purposive sampling
 Begins by asking people to identify specific
kinds of cases.
 It begins with a few people or cases and then
gradually increases the sample size as new
contacts are mentioned by contacts you
started out with

73.  Convenience/accidental Sampling
 Involves selecting respondents primarily
based on the basis of their availability and
willingness to respond (Shaughness, 2000)
 Respondents are people who just happen to
be walking by or show interest in your
research

74.  Quota Sampling
 Is a non-prob sampling which consists of two
stages.
 First, quotas are assigned to the population
to ensure that the population cs are captured
in the sample
 Second, after the assignment of quotas,
convenience or judgement sampling is used
by the researcher to choose elements from
the subgroups.

75.  Research instruments
 Are tools for collecting, measure and analyse
data related to your subject.
 Are fact-finding strategies. They are tools for
data collection. They include questionnaires,
interview schedules, observation, focused
group discussion and observation.

76.  Questionnaire
 An instrument used mostly in normative
surveys.
 It is a systematically prepared form or
document with a set of questions designed
to elicit responses as insights into the
nature of the problem under study.
 Information can be collected from a large
sample and diverse respondents
 Questions are free from interview bias since
they are in paper format

77.  Advantages
 Saves time
 Minimum supervision/training to administer
 Confidentiality is maintained
 Easy and inexpensive distribution
 More accurate responses expected
 Easier to construct
 Confidential information is likely to be given
freely
 Cover a wide area

78.  Disadvantages
 Some questions may be left unanswered
 Cannot be used to illiterate people
 Some filled-up questionnaires may not be
returned
 No time to question responses given
 No room to ask the researcher to clarify qns
 Limited choices may force respondents to
select responses which are not their actual
responses

79.  Closed-ended
 Questions with
responses to choose
from
 Allow a respondent to
give a specific response
e.g.
1) is Dodoma the capital
city of Tanzania? 2)On
what day were you born
3. When president, what
did you do (if never was
the president)
 Open-ended
 A question that can not
be answered with a ‘yes’
or ‘no’ response or with
a static response.
 They are questions which
require longer responses
e.g.
1. what do you think
about this product?
2. Why is Africa
underdeveloped?

80.  Questions asked orally to seek responses
 There are two types of interviews namely,
structured and unstructured interviews.
i) Structured interviews
 They involve asking respondents similar
questions.
 They are more formal with little room for
creative answers

81.  Advantages
 Reliability of information gathered is high
since similar questions are asked
 Gives in-depth information based on
researcher’s interest as information is sought
on specific issues
 Saves time since what is answered is what the
researcher asks
 Data collected is quantifiable

82.  Disadvantages
 Too formal to get some insights since the
responses may be too cautious and give
answers which only impress the researcher
 Rigidity displayed by the researcher can affect
the responses given. The respondent may feel
as if under investigation and is being probed.
 Some points not included in the questions
may be missed out

83.  In this instrument, there is neither specific
question to be asked nor pre-determined
possible answers are expected
 The interviews are flexible, more informal and
free-flowing
 Advantages
 Questions are flexible thereby giving room for
respondents to give a lot of information
 Lack of rigidity helps respondents to feel part of
the team
 Useful in studying sensitive topics such as
sexuality or abortion
 Gives in-depth information

84.  Disadvantages
 Time consuming since a respondent can
dwell on one issue for a long time
 Difficult to systematize data because of an
overlap in responses or questions
 If not carefully handled, it can get out of
control leading to respondents getting to
emotional

85.  These are interviews in which a few questions
are pre-determined, but others are not

86.  A group comprised of 6-8 individuals who
share certain characteristics relevant for the
study
 The discussion is carefully planned and
designed to obtain inf. on participants’
beliefs and perceptions
 Criteria for selecting a FGD
1. A topic for discussion be decided
beforehand
2. There is a predetermined list of open-ended
questions

87.  It is tool that provides information about
actual behavior
 Direct observation is useful as some behavior
involves habitual routines of which people are
hardly aware
 Forms of observation are:
i) Participant observation
ii) Unstructured observation
iii) Structured observation

88.  The investigator becomes an active
functioning member of the culture under
study
 An investigator participates in any activity
appropriate to the status which is assumed
 Respondents become more comfortable with
the researcher.
Note: It can be time consuming

89.  Structured
 The observer is an
onlooker
 Specific in terms of what
is to be observed and
recorded
 This requires the
researcher to be clear on
the behavior being
observed
 Unstructured
 The observer is an
onlooker
 General in terms of what
is to be observed and
recorded
 Flexible, allowing for the
collection of
comprehensive and rich
data
 Helpful in understanding
bhv patterns in their
physical and social
context

90.  There are two major sources of data used by
researchers:
i) Primary sources (provide primary data)
 Information gathered directly from respondents
through questionnaire, interviews, FGD,
observations and experimental studies.
 It involves ‘new’ data.
ii) Secondary sources (provide secondary data)
 Data gathered from data already collected by
someone else.
 It involves the collection and analysis of
published material and information from internet
sources.

91.  Available more cheaply that collecting the
same data “from scratch”.
 Can give the researcher access to otherwise-
unavailable organizations, individuals or
locations
 Less-time consuming since they are pre-
processed

92.  Researcher is likely to rely on the skills and
propriety of the collector
 Researcher may have little or no direct
knowledge of the processing methods
employed.
i.e. researcher may rarely have access to
original raw data to check the validity of the
findings
 The researcher is forced to rely on the skills
and integrity of those who collected and
analysed the data.

93.  Ethics - are moral principles
 Moral principles- are guidelines that people
live by to make sure they are doing the right
thing.
 Ethical issues –they occur when a given
decision, scenario or activity creates conflict
with society’s moral principles.
 Researchers whose subjects are people or
animals must consider professionalism and
pay attention to ethical issues in research.

94. Rules applicable to data collection
 Prior to data collection, seek consent from
respondents
 Ensure that respondent’s privacy is not intruded
 Abide by moral and legal issues since
respondents may have diff. feelings and
sensibilities from the researcher.
 Consent to use names, videos, pictures, etc.
should be sought prior to data collection
 The researcher should maintain confidentiality at
all time

95. Rules applicable to data collection
 In order to carry out a survey or experiment,
there have to be benefits from the study that
outweigh the costs.
-the researcher has to justify beyond any
reasonable doubt the need for data collection
 The researcher must take all reasonable
measures to protect subjects physically and
psychologically.
 The researcher must fully explain the research in
advance and “de-brief” subjects afterwards.

96. The two terms are different but related.
 Validity
 Extent to which an instrument used in research is
accurate.
 It is a measure of how well an instrument used
measures what it is intended to measure.
 Reliability
 A measure of the extent to which the results
from an instrument used are consistent
 In other words, reliability establishes if the same
instruments used can yield similar results if a
different study is conducted.

97.  Pilot study/Pre-test
 Prior to actual data collection, a mini study
can be conducted.
 Proper handling of questionnaires, interview
schedules, observation, etc. to avoid disparity
if a different study is done.
 After data collection, a thorough scrutiny of
data should be done prior to analysis and
discussion of the findings to avoid such
things as coding error, recording error,
question errors, etc.

98.  Helps test the feasibility of the study techniques to
perfect the questionnaire concepts and wording
 Enables the researcher to find out if the selected
questions are measuring what they are supposed to
measure
 Helps cross-checking the clarity of wording to make
sure all questions will be interpreted in the same way
by all respondents
 Helps the researcher to detect what response is
provoked and find out if there is any research bias
 Enables the researcher to monitor the context in
which the data will be collected and the topic areas
addressed. The researcher shouldn’t used pre-test
sample in the actual study

99.  Data Organization (DO)
 Orderliness in data/putting data in a systematic form
 DO includes identifying (correcting) errors in the
data, coding the data and storing it in the form that is
appropriate.
DO involves the following:
i. Pre-processing-to correct problems in the raw data
ii. Development of a coding system-researcher assigns
codes to likely answers. E.g. 1=yes, 2=no and 0=do
not know
Challenge: treatment of missing data
Soln: Provide special codes why data not
included/going back to the field to fill the missing info.

100. iii. Deciding on Data Storage
 After coding, the generated info. has to be
stored. There are two major storage forms
namely: Electronic and non electronic (paper)
forms.
iv. Choosing a Statistical Software Package
 After deciding on data storage, a statistical
software package relevant in the analysis has to
be thought about.
 Some computer software: Word processor,
Spreadsheets, Databases, Statistical systems and
Graphical Systems.

101.  Analysis (ANL)
 Examining the coded data critically and
making inferences
 Involves uncovering underlying structures;
extracting important variables; detecting any
anomalies and testing any underlying
assumptions.

102.  Data Presentation
 Refers to ways of arranging data to make it
clearly understood.
There are three ways data can be presented
after analysis:
 Using statistical techniques
 Using graphical Techniques
 Using a combination of both

103.  Summary of the Main Findings (SF)
 It bases on results from the study
 In ta SF, a researcher should identify the
findings of the study and discuss them briefly
 It is brief, all statements are concise, and
pinpoint to the contributions that the
researcher has made.
 One way to write SF is to use one paragraph
for each idea

104.  Conclusion
 Should be very brief about half a page
 Should indicate what the study results
reaffirm
 Should clearly state how the study has
contributed to knowledge

105.  Recommendations
 This section often exposes further problems and
introduces more questions
 As a researcher, there is a time limit to the
research project, so it is unlikely that the study
would have solved all the problems associated
with the area of the study.
 The researcher, therefore, is expected to make
some suggestions about how his/her work can
be improved and
 Based on the study findings, point out whether
there are areas that deserve further
investigations