Tunicate

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Urochordata, also known as tunicates or sea squirts, are a subphylum of chordates that have a notochord only during their larval stage. They are filter feeders that live in aquatic or marine environments and have a u-shaped gut. Most urochordates are hermaphrodites and can reproduce both sexually and asexually through budding. They lack a brain and have a simple nervous system consisting of a nerve cord.

Chordata Urochordata By Sam Cleary Period 2 5/19/09-5/20/09 Bluebell Tunicate Clavelina puertosecensis

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Respiratory System Through respiratory Tube Out Gills Water Flows in Mouth

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ORIGIN OF CHORDATES Animal kingdom is basically divided into two sub kingdoms: Non-chordata- including animals without notochord. Chordata- This comprising animals having notochord or chorda dorsalis. Chordates were evolved sometime 500 million years ago during Cambrian period (invertebrates were also began to evolve in this period) . Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body. It is believed that Chordates have originated from invertebrates. It is difficult to determine from which invertebrate group the chordates were developed. Chordate ancestors were soft bodied animals. Hence they were not preserved as Fossils. However, early fossils of chordates have all been recovered from marine sediments and even modern protochordates are all marine forms. Also glomerular kidneys are also found in some marine forms such as myxinoids and sharks. That makes the marine origin of chordates more believable. Chordates evolved from some deuterostome ancestor (echinoderms, hemichordates, pogonophorans etc.) as they have similarities in embryonic development, type of coelom and larval stages. Many theories infers origin of chordates, hemichordates and echinoderms from a common ancestor.

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Why do animals need to breathe? Breathing is important to organisms because cells require energy (oxygen) to move, reproduce and function. Breath also expels carbon dioxide, which is a by-product of cellular processes within the bodies of animals. Respiration is the process of releasing energy from food and this takes place inside the cells of the body. The process of respiration involves taking in oxygen (of air) into cells, using it for releasing energy by burning food, and then eliminating the waste products (carbon dioxide and water) from the body. Respiration is essential for life because it provides energy for carrying out all the life processes which are necessary to keep the organisms alive. The energy produced during respiration is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine Tri- Phosphate) molecules in the cells of the body and used by the organism as when required. KEY POINTS Life started in an anaerobic environment in the so called ‘primodial broth’ (a mixture of organic molecules. Subsequently, oxygen strangely enough became an crucial factor for aerobic metabolism especially in the higher life forms. The rise of an oxygenic environment was an important event in the diversification of life. It evoked a dramatic shift from inefficient to sophisticated oxygen dependent oxidizing ecosystems. Anaerobic fermentation, the metabolic process that prevailed for the first about 2 billion years of the evolution of life, was a very inefficient way of extracting energy from organic molecules. Ex: A molecule of glucose, e.g., produces only two molecules of ATP (≈ 15 kCal) compared with 36 ATP molecules (≈ 263 kCal) in oxygenic respiration. Aerobic metabolism must have developed at a critical point when the partial pressure of oxygen rose from an initial level to one adequately high to drive it passively across the cell membrane. Respiration is a complex and highly integrated biomechanical, physiological, and behavioral processes. The transfer of O2 occurs through a flow of tissue barriers and compartments by diffusion down a partial pressure gradient, which drops to about zero at the mitochondrial level. Acquisition of molecular oxygen (O2) from the external fluid media (water and air) and the discharge of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the same milieu is the primary role of respiration. The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures.

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DENTITION IN MAMMALS The study of arrangement structure and number of types of teeth collectively is called as dentition. Teeth are present in the foetal as well as in adults of mammals, based on the presence of teeth Mammals are two types. Edentata : In some animals teeth are absent hence called as edentate. e.g., Echidna or spiny ant-eater (Tachyglossus) the teeth are absent in all stages of life. Dentata : Teeth are present in all mammals though a secon¬dary toothless condition is found in some mammals. Modern turtles and birds lack teeth. The adult platypus (Ornithorhynchus) bears epidermal teeth but no true teeth are present. In platypus embryonic teeth are replaced by horny epidermal teeth in adult. Classification According to the Shape and Size of the Teeth: Homodont: Homodont or Isodont type of teeth is a condition where the teeth are all alike in their shape and size in the toothed whales e.g., Pinnipedians. Fishes, amphibians, reptiles and in the extinct toothed birds. Heterodont Heterodont condition is the usual feature in mammals, i.e. the teeth are distinguished according to their shape, size and function. The function is also different at different parts of the tooth row. According to the Mode of Attachment of Teeth: Thecodont : The teeth are lodged in bony sockets or alveoli of the jaw bone and capillaries and nerves enter the pulp cavity through the open tips of the hollow roots e.g., mammals, crocodiles and in some fishes. Acrodont: The teeth are fused to the surface of the underlying jawbone. They have no roots and are attached to the edge of the jawbone by fibrous membrane e.g., fishes, amphibians and some reptiles. Pleurodont: The teeth are attached to the inner-side of the jawbone. The tooth touches the bone only with the outer surface of its root. In acrodont and pleurodont types of dentition, there are no roots, and nerves and blood vessels do not enter the pulp cavity at the base, e.g., Necturus (Amphibia) and some reptiles. According to the Succession or Replace¬ment of Teeth:

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The basic fundamental plan of the aortic arches is similar in different vertebrates during embryonic stages. But in adult the condition of the arrangement is changed either being lost or modified considerably. The number of aortic arches is gradually reduced as the scale of evolution of vertebrates is ascended. The embryonic aortic arches were basically six pairs. But with progressive evolution , there has been consequent reduction in numbers of aortic arches. In the basic pattern the major arterial channels consists of A ventral aorta emerging from the heart and passing forward beneath the pharynx A dorsal aorta paired above the pharynx and passing caudal above the digestive tract. Six pairs of aortic arches connecting ventral aorta to with the dorsal aorta. 1st aortic arch= Mandibular aortic arch 2nd Aortic arch= hyoid aortic arch 3rd ,4th ,5th and 6th aortic arches in case of aquatic animal , known as branchial aortic arches.

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Tunicate

1. Chordata Urochordata By Sam Cleary Period 2 5/19/09-5/20/09 Bluebell Tunicate Clavelina puertosecensis

7. Respiratory System Through respiratory Tube Out Gills Water Flows in Mouth

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Tunicate

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