The document outlines key concepts of time and project management, emphasizing the importance of time as a critical constraint alongside cost and quality. It defines projects, their objectives, various phases, types, and methods for estimating time and scheduling. Additionally, it discusses project planning, monitoring, potential issues, and strategies for project acceleration and termination.

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Time and Projects
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MTL Course Topics
Time and Projects
TIME MANAGEMENT

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ARE YOU READY?
OK, LET’S START!

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INTRODUCTION
Time is one of the key factors in determining whether
projects are managed well. There are, in all, three
constraints in a project: time, cost and quality. At the start of
a project, all three will be estimated. If time on the project is
managed well, which means that the project comes in on
time without seriously compromising the cost and quality,
then the project will have partly succeeded. If the cost and
quality also come in on target without affecting the time,
then the whole project would be regarded as a success.

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WHAT IS A PROJECT?
The following are definitions of a project:
1. A project is an organisational device to bring together a
multi-disciplinary team to achieve a given objective.
2. A project is a combination of human and non-human
resources pulled together in a temporary organisation
to achieve a specified purpose.
3. A project is an organisation which is established for a
limited time period to solve a relatively complex or
unique problem.
4. A project is an organisation of people dedicated to a
specific purpose. Projects generally involve large,
expensive, unique or high-risk undertakings which have
to be completed by a certain date, for a certain amount
of money, within some expected level of performance.

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A PROJECT'S OBJECTIVES
Every project has three objectives which also act as
constraints. These are: time, money and results. "Results"
might also be defined as the project specification or the end
quality of the project.
The aim of all projects is to produce a result in a given time,
at a given cost and to a given quality.
These aims are inter-related. If you increase resources to
increase the quality, you may reduce the time but you will
increase the cost. If you reduce the resources to save
money, you may increase the time. If you reduce the time,
you may reduce the costs but you may increase the need for
resources.
On the project management triangle, the ideal position is an
equidistant one between all three aims of time, cost and
result.

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TYPES OF PROJECT
There are two types of projects and both involve complexity
and uncertainty...
Backwards-known
Backwards-known projects are those where the project
outcome is known from the start. It could be a house, bridge
or road construction, models of which could be designed at
the early stages of the project. Although the end result is
known and therefore planning is backwards from it, we do
not know what problems we may meet on the way.
Forwards- unknown
Forwards-unknown projects are those which have no clear
idea of exactly where they will end up. A project team may
be given funds, time and a general direction - for example,
to research a cure for AIDS - but each step along the way is
new and totally unpredictable.

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THE PHASES OF PROJECTS
One of the few certainties about projects is that they have
predictable phases of development. They have a start and
finish, and, if they run to their full length, they have the
following phases in between.
Phase 1: This phase involves the initiation of a project
between project sponsor or client and the project team. It is
likely to cover the definition and scope of the project, initial
time estimates and risk analysis.
Phase 2: This phase involves the planning and design of the
project and the go-ahead.
Phase 3: This phase consists of the implementation of the
project and its monitoring, control and co-ordination.
Phase 4: This phase involves bringing the project in on time,
on budget and on specification. Alternatively, it involves
winding up a project that is no longer needed.

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INITIAL ESTIMATES
Whether you are carrying out a project for yourself or for a
client or sponsor, you need to make some initial estimates
at an early stage to decide whether the project is worth
your while and is likely to be completed in the way you
want.
Estimates need to be made on what the project will cost you
and on the amount of time it will take.
Four kinds of estimate serve as useful starting points...
1. ball-park estimates, which are rough approximations
and have a low accuracy of + or - 25%.
2. comparative estimates (based on previous costs) which
have an accuracy of + or - 15%.
3. feasibility estimates (based on a study) which have an
accuracy of + or - 10%.
4. definitive estimates which take time to produce but
have an accuracy of + or - 5%.

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TASKS AND TIME
Tasks are the basic units of projects because projects are a
series of selected tasks which build towards a result.
Getting the right tasks, putting them in the correct order
and then working out how long they will take is what time
estimation is all about.
There are five steps in the process of estimating project
times...
1. brainstorm every activity
2. agree a working list of tasks
3. put a time estimate against each activity
4. place activities in a logical sequence
5. work out the critical path.
The resultant estimate, together with an estimate of the
availability and suitability of resources, becomes the basic
planning model for the project.

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BRAINSTORMING THE TASKS
The first stage in estimating the time of a project is to
brainstorm all the jobs that need to be carried out. This can
be done after you have completed your desktop research:
simply write down every conceivable activity that the
project might need.
As with all brainstorming activity, you should aim for
quantity not quality of detail: the more tasks you can think
of the better. Tasks can be eliminated later on.
Brainstorming is an exercise which can be carried out alone
or in a group as long as you are able to work quickly enough
to write down each idea as it comes.
At the end of a brainstorming session, which you can repeat
as many times as you wish, you should possess a long list of
every conceivable task the project needs.

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A WORKING LIST OF TASKS
Once you have brainstormed all the tasks that the project
might need, you should check through them and start to
build a working list. Do this by following these checks...
1. check that you haven't missed anything out by using
checklists from previous similar projects
2. check that you have included the many small and
apparently unimportant jobs that have to be done, such
as administration, co-ordinating, holding meetings
3. check that every job is necessary for what the client has
requested. Guard against including pet jobs of your
own.
4. ruthlessly eliminate anything that doesn't have to be
done.
Once you have produced a finished list of project tasks, you
can code them or number them.

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ESTIMATING METHODS
The third step in estimating times for project tasks is the
actual estimating itself. There are four different methods to
work out how long tasks will take:
1. the PFA method: "PFA" stands for "Plucked From the
Air" and means taking an intuitive and educated guess.
2. the updating method: updating takes times from
previous projects and updates them according to the
circumstances and resources of the new project.
3. the rehearsal method: this approach runs through the
tasks and times them.
4. the model method: we can create different models of
the tasks in a project and study them.
Models include network diagrams, flow charts, iconic, (ie
physical representation), verbal - written descriptions and
analogue (similar) models.

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A LOGICAL SEQUENCE
Once you have agreed your list of tasks in the project and
placed estimated times against them - bearing in mind your
available resources - you need to decide on the best order in
which to carry them out. You can do this by means of a
simple 1, 2, 3, list or by using network analysis.
Network analysis places tasks in logical sequences based on
the following information...
1. what are the first jobs and the last?
2. which jobs must be done before others can be started?
3. which jobs depend rigidly on others?
4. which jobs can have leeway before they start and after
they finish?
5. what are the earliest and latest times jobs have to start
and finish to fit into a logical sequence?

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NETWORK ANALYSIS
Network analysis is a generic name for a variety of
techniques which are used to analyse the sequence of tasks
in a project.
The aim of network analysis is to make a complex series of
tasks simpler to understand and schedule. It does this by...
1. logically sequencing the tasks in a diagram from left to
right
2. showing tasks that can be carried out in parallel and
thus save time
3. calculating overall times for the project;
4. calculating the shortest time in which the project can be
completed
5. indicating where time can be saved.
Network analysis was originally developed in the late 1950's
in the USA to help manage the development work on the
Polaris nuclear missile system.

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WALLPAPERING A ROOM
One example of network analysis is the simple operation of
wallpapering a living room. There are nine tasks in the first
phase.
Four tasks are independent of any other and can be started
at any time; the rest depend on each other.
1. Move furniture (15 mins)
2. Remove decorations (10 mins)
3. Position dust-sheets (5 mins)
4. Strip old wallpaper (240 mins)
5. Prepare paste, leave to soak (30 mins)
6. Cut length of wallpaper (2 mins)
7. Apply paste (2 mins)
8. Hang and smoothe (3 mins)
9. Trim top and bottom (2 mins)
Although the separate times add up to 309 minutes, the
critical path is based on tasks 1, 3, 4, 8 and 9, which take a
total of 275 minutes.

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THE CRITICAL PATH
One of the most valuable benefits of network analysis is
that it allows project managers to calculate the critical path
of the project. The critical path allows you to study those
tasks that have no leeway, that follow one another and
whose overall time cannot be shortened.
The calculation of the critical path enables you to answer
the question: "how long will the project take?" given our
current assessment of the suitability, availability and
efficiency of our resources. As your assessment of resources
changes, so the network and critical path can be updated;
computer programmes using project management
techniques are invaluable for doing this in complex projects.
When you have identified the critical path - which often
amounts to less than 10% of all tasks - you should highlight
it in red.

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PLANNING
Planning is vital in any project management because...
1. it provides a route map to our goals
2. it enables us to think ahead and be prepared
3. it helps us to consider options, weigh each one up and
make better decisions
4. it forces us to put our ideas down in writing and so
communicate them to others
5. it provides an overview of the whole project
6. it provides a benchmark against which we can say how
well we're doing
7. it reduces implementation time.
Planning doesn't get rid of the hassle in projects, but it does
bring it up front.
"In preparing for battle, I have always found that plans are
useless, but planning indispensable." (Dwight Eisenhower)

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SCHEDULING
Scheduling is the process of placing project plans into a
calendar timeframe.
Scheduling usually involves the use of written plans, bar
charts, calendar tables and Gantt charts.
Scheduling is the application of your plan to the reality of
day-to-day working. It should take into account the
following factors...
• the time you and others have to devote to the project
• your need for breaks, rests, days off, holidays
• the deadlines you've agreed to meet for parts of the
project
• good or bad times of the day, week or year
• suppliers' delivery schedules
• unforeseen contingencies.

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BAR CHARTS
The bar chart places the information about a project's
schedules into a calendar format. This is otherwise known
as a Gantt chart, named after Henry Gantt, an American
who used this device to build cargo ships in the First World
War.
Additional features of bar charts are:
1. indications of a task's earliest and latest starting times,
earliest and latest finishing times, and the float or
leeway
2. milestones indicating when certain key points must be
completed
3. allocating responsibilities for each task to each member
of the project team or sub-contractors. In a team, you
can indicate on the chart the different levels of
responsibility for each task, ranging from notifying,
consulting to seeking approval.
When completed, the bar chart becomes the bedrock of all
the project's activities.

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TRACKING AND MONITORING
Controls are essential to keep the project in line with the
plan. This means building in to the project different systems
of working, such as auditing, progress reporting and tracking
and monitoring.
Tracking and monitoring means...
1. developing a system that keeps everyone informed on
the project's progress
2. signalling problems, lack of resources and missed
targets as quickly as possible
3. delegating responsibility for reporting progress to the
lowest level possible
4. devising tracking systems that are not about judging
performance (good or bad work) but about measuring
progress towards the project's goals (how far?)
5. getting information to the people who can take action.

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MURPHY'S LAW
Whenever we try to manage the future through project
work, we inevitably run into unexpected problems which we
hadn't planned for. It often seems that everything that could
go wrong does go wrong: the application of a phenomenon
known as "Murphy's Law".
Murphy's Law tells us that...
1. anything that can go wrong will go wrong
2. the light at the end of the tunnel is the headlamp of an
oncoming train
3. if everything seems to be going well, you haven't a clue
what's going on
4. a short cut is the longest distance between two points
5. anything that you try to fix will take longer and cost
more than you thought
6. the chance of a piece of bread falling with the buttered
side down is directly proportional to the cost of the
carpet.

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CRASHING
Crashing, or accelerating, means resolving project problems
by shortening the length of time that the project, or parts of
the project, is due to take.
There are numerous reasons why crashing may be
necessary...
• an opportunity has arisen to speed up work (eg a change
in the weather allowing outside work to take place)
• the project is running behind schedule
• there is negative float on the critical path.
There are many ways to crash a project. These include:
1. transferring resources from non-critical to critical tasks
2. turning sequential tasks into parallel ones
3. reducing the scope of the project
4. re-calculating time estimates
5. improving efficiencies.

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TERMINATION
The termination phase of a project is identified when one of
the following takes place...
Extinction: the project begins to die out, possibly through
lack of interest, lack of funds or lack of commitment to the
goals
Inclusion: the project meets its targets ahead of time and is
ready to be handed over to the client who acknowledges its
completion
Integration: the project becomes integrated into the normal
everyday work of the business eg a computer installation.
"In this age, which believes there is a shortcut to everything,
the greatest lesson to be learned is that the most difficult
way is in the long run the easiest." (Henry Miller, 1891 -
1980)

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THE TIME WE TAKE
A five-year study by psychologists at Sussex University
shows that most people fail to achieve what they expect in
the time they set themselves. This is because...
• we always look forward when making plans and rarely at
what happened in similar situations in the past
• we ignore what can go wrong
• we concentrate on how early we would like to complete
the project and use that as the estimated time.
Leader of the study, Dr Dale Griffin, says that it doesn't
matter whether the project is a big one or a small one. For
example, the Channel Tunnel came in a year late and 100%
over budget. The Sydney Opera House opened 10 years late
and 1300% over budget. Most of us are late at filling in
forms or doing household do-it-yourself jobs.

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FAILURE AND SUCCESS
The following high-profile projects all failed to meet their
stated objectives in time, cost and result:
1. Ford - the Edsel
2. Lockheed - the L-1011 airbus
3. Polaroid - Polavision
4. Betamax video tapes
5. Gillette - digital wristwatches
6. BIC Pen corporation - fannyhose
7. Four Seasons - chain of nursing homes
8. Hoover - free air travel promotion
9. The London Stock Exchange - the £500 million Taurus
automated share transfer scheme
10. Abbey National - purchase of its own estate agencies.
However, even in total project failures, there are always
benefits to be found, such as new learning, personal
development and the value of teamwork.

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THAT’S
IT!
WELL DONE!

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THANK YOU
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