The document discusses various theories of instructional design including cognitive, constructivist, and connectivist perspectives. It outlines key principles such as learning occurring within communities of practice and personal learning environments. Different learning environments are also examined, like cognitive apprenticeship and technology-enabled active learning. Motivation theories including ARCS, self-efficacy, attribution, and goal-setting are summarized.

1. Theories of Instructional Design
Psychological Foundations, Learning Environments & Learning Motivation
Jordan Carswell
February 9, 2008
Assignment 2
INST 5131

2. Philosophical
Foundations
Many psychological
theories have contributed
to the field of instructional
design.
Underlying them all,
however, is the belief that
instruction will lead to
learning.
(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)

3. Cognitive Information Processing
Mind as Computer
The central hypothesis of

cognitive science is that thinking
can best be understood in terms
of representational structures in
the mind and computational
procedures that operate on
those structures.
(Stanford University, 2007, para. 9)
(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)

4. Constructivism
The Learning Sciences
onstructivism is a philosophy of
Grounded in the cognitive

learning founded on the premise sciences
that, by reflecting on our
experiences, we construct our Learner as active agent,

responsible for creating
own understanding of the world
understanding
we live in. Each of us generates
our own “rules” and “mental
Design Research
models,” which we use to make
sense of our experiences.
Formative experiments

Learning, therefore, is simply the
process of adjusting our mental
Learning takes place within

models to accommodate new
the context of research
experiences.
(Funderstanding, 2001, para. 1) (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)

5. Situational Learning
The activity in which knowledge is
Learning as Participation
developed and deployed, it is
now argued, is not separable
from or ancillary to learning and
cognition.
(Brown, 1989, p. 32)
Defining Characteristics
Learning takes place within a

community of practice
Knowledge is gained in the

process of participating in the
activities of the community
(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007) (Wenger, 1998, as cited in Reiser and Dempsey 2007)

6. Connectivism
Defining Characteristics
onnectivism is the integration
Diversity of opinions

of principles explored by
chaos, network, and Connecting nodes of information

complexity and self-
Learning can reside anywhere

organization theories.
Connections must be nurtured

Recognition of connections

earning is a process that
occurs within nebulous Staying current with information

environments of shifting core
Individual decision-making

elements – not entirely under
the control of the individual.
(Siemens, 2004, paras. 25-27)

7. Personal Foundations
earning takes place in
diverse settings. No one
theory holds true for all
situations.
herefore, good design is
agnostic, analyzing each
unique problem and
finding the appropriate
solution whatever the
source.

8. Learning
Environments
Whether in a lecture hall,
on the job, or from a home
computer, learning is
shaped by place.
The learning environment
is a key component of any
theory of instructional
design.

9. Cognitive Apprenticeship
earning Environment
tudents observe the practices of
experts as they learn to perform
tasks on their own
n ancient times, teaching and
learning were accomplished through
bstract tasks are presented apprenticeship: We taught our
in a real-life context
children how to speak, grow crops,
craft cabinets, or tailor clothes by
ask’s processes are visible showing them how and by helping
to all learners
them do it.
(Collins, 1991) (Collins, 1991, para. 1)
asks are varied to encourage

10. Communities of Practice
Key Attributes
 The Domain
Shared competence
ommunities of practice are and identity
groups of people who share
n The Community
a concern or a passion for Share activities and
information
something they do and learn
n The Practice
how to do it better as they Shared experiences
and resources
interact regularly. n.d., para. 3)
(Wenger,
(Wenger,
n.d.)

11. Personal Learning Environments
What constitutes a
PLE?
LEs aren’t an entity, structural object
Learner constructed
or software program in the sense of 
environment
a learning management system.
Iterative, constantly open to

revision and growth
ssentially, they are a collection of Mash-ups of web-based tools–

not one size fits all
tools, brought together under the
conceptual notion of openness,
interoperability, and learner control.
(Siemens, 2007, para.
2)

12. iCamp
iCamp is a research and development project
funded by the European Commission under
the IST (Information Society Technology)
programme of FP6. The project aims at
creating an infrastructure for collaboration and
networking across systems, countries, and  Facilitators and learners in a
disciplines in Higher Education. single virtual environment
Comprised of a collection of
Pedagogically it is based on constructivist
open source software tools
learning theories that puts more emphasis on
self-organised learning, social networking, and
Social constructivist approach
the changing roles of educators.
(iCamp, n.d., para. 1)
(iCamp,
n.d.)
learn more: http://www.icamp.eu/

13. Technology Enabled Active Learning
Learning Problem
assachusetts Institute
Physics students were not
of Technology Project
engaged in the lecture hall
environment
ecture and hands-on lab (MIT, 2006)
experiments combined
Initial Results
lassroom redesigned
for group interaction Students significantly improved
their understanding of physics
in the TEAL environment
edia-rich software for simulation
and visualization (Dori and Belcher,
(MIT, 2006)
2005)
echnology-based

14. Personal Observations
n Visibility… n Modeling…
As a web design Teaching faculty and staff
instructor, I noticed that how to use a new
the quality of my students’ technology, I first show
mastery of a task them how to do an activity
improved when they were and then sit with them as
able to observe the work they repeat the activity on
of their classmates.” their own.”

15. Learner I’d rather be
kayaking…
Motivation
Human performance technology
recognizes three influences on
performance which must be
addressed in successful
instructional design.
Of these, motivation is critical as it
plays a decisive role in whether a
learner chooses to choose a goal
or pursue an activity.
(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)

16. ARCS Model
Design Process
Recognize elements of

human motivation
Analyze and determine

motivational requirements
Identify instruction that will

stimulate motivation
Apply and evaluate plan

(Keller,
2006)

17. Self-Efficacy
Learners’ motivations and Reciprocal Determinism

actions are based more on
what they believe to be true
than what is actually true
Learners’ beliefs about their

abilities often outweigh
knowledge, skill, or experience
in determining success
Success can be predicted

based on what learners believe
themselves capable of
achieving
(Adapted from Pajares, 2002)
(Pajares, 2002)

18. Attribution Theory
Internal Attribution
uccess is variously attributed Success is determined by personal

ability and effort
to internal factors within one’s
External Attribution
control or external factors
outside one’s control. Success is determined by outside

factors, i.e. task, environment,
or others
earner’s interpretations are
(Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2001)
based on self-perceptions and
a desire to maintain(Vockell, n.d.)
a positive
self-image.

19. Goal-setting Theory
Focused on the uncovering the

key properties of a goal
Self-efficacy
Specificity and difficulty level

Goal effects on the individual,

group and organization
Learning vs. performance goals

Assigned Goal Performance
Mediators and moderators of goal

effects
Goals as mediators

Goal source (self, assigned, Personal Goal

group)
(Locke and Latham, 2002, p. 714) (Adapted from Locke and Latham, 2002, p. 709)

20. References
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1988). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning.

Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information Center.
Brown, J. S. (n.d.). New Learning Environments for the 21st Century. Retrieved February 4,

2009 from: http://www.johnseelybrown.com/newlearning.pdf
Collins, A. (1991). Cognitive Apprenticeship: Making Things Visible. American Educator: The

Professional Journal of the American Federation of Teachers. 15 (3), 6-11,38-46.
Dori, Y. J., & Belcher, J. (2005). How Does Technology-Enabled Active Learning Affect

Undergraduate Students' Understanding of Electromagnetism Concepts? JOURNAL OF
THE LEARNING SCIENCES. 14 (2), 243-279.

21. Funderstanding (2001). Constructivism. Retrieved February 2, 2009 from:

http://www.funderstanding.com/content/constructivism
Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (2001). Attribution theory. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2699/is_0003/ai_2699000382
iCamp (n.d.). Crossing the border to the future of education. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from:

http://www.icamp.eu/
Keller, John (2006). What are the elements of learner motivation? Retrieved February 4, 2009

from: http://www.arcsmodel.com/Mot%20dsgn%20A%20cate.htm
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and

Task Motivation. American Psychologist. 57 (9), 705-17.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2006). Technology Enabled Active Learning (TEAL).

Retrieved February 4, 2009 from: http://icampus.mit.edu/projects/TEAL.shtml

22. Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retreived February 4,

2009 from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html
Reiser, R.A. & Dempsey, J.V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology

(2nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Siemens, George (2004). Connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved February 3,

2009 from: http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm
Siemens, George (2007). PLEs – I Acronym, Therefore I Exist. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from:

http://www.elearnspace.org/blog/2007/04/15/ples-i-acronym-therefore-i-exist/
Vockell, Edward (n.d.). Attribution Theory. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from:

http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdpsyBook/
Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.htm
Wenger, E. (n.d.). Communities of practice. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from:

http://www.ewenger.com/theory/index.htm

23. Reiser, R.A. & Dempsey, J.V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology

(2nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Siemens, George (2004). Connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved

February 3, 2009 from: http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm
Siemens, George (2007). PLEs – I Acronym, Therefore I Exist. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from:

http://www.elearnspace.org/blog/2007/04/15/ples-i-acronym-therefore-i-exist/
Vockell, Edward (n.d.). Attribution Theory. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from:

http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdpsyBook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.htm
Wenger, E. (n.d.). Communities of practice. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from:

http://www.ewenger.com/theory/index.htm