The Conceptual Model of Time Management.pdf

ISSN 2039-2117 (online)
ISSN 2039-9340 (print)
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Vol 5 No 13
June 2014
̱Ͷʹ̱
The Conceptual Model of Time Management
RamunƢ þiarnienƢ
Kaunas University of Technology
Email: ramune.ciarniene@ktu.lt
Milita VienažindienƢ
Kaunas University of Technology
Email: milita.vienazindiene@ktu.lt
Doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n13p42
Abstract
During the last decades, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of time in today's global and rapid society. The
paper analyzes the causes, importance and benefits of time management. Time management can be defined as behaviours
that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain goal-directed activities. People have individual
perceptions of time and different skills to realize themselves in time. The analysis of the main time management techniques,
their features and application possibilities is presented in the paper. Based on the analysis of scientific literature, the authors
propose a conceptual model illustrating the importance of time planning and benefits of efficient time use on individual and
organizational level. The presented model consists of the following 3 major components: the problems for individuals and
organizations; time planning typology and techniques; benefits for individual and organization. It can be stated that great
influence on time management is done by surrounding environment, personality type and motivation.
Keywords: time; time planning; time management; time management techniques; conceptual model.
1. Introduction
Time is a unique resource in that everyone is given an equal amount – 24 hours each day. How we invest that gift is a
major factor in how we feel about our life. Time goes by at the same rate no matter what are we doing. We can‘t speed it
up or slow it down. Unlike the other resources that we can manage, there is no way to control time. The best we can do is
take charge of ourselves in the framework of time, investing in those things that matter most.
One of the core issues almost everyone struggles with these days is time management. Time management is not
about finding an extra hour or two in the day; it’s about using the time we have more judiciously. Good, effective time
management is a core skill, a career skill that everyone needs both to be able to perform in a current job and to enhance
career prospects (Forsyth, 2010). Time management is the act or process of planning and exercising conscious control
over the amount of time spent on specific activities, especially to increase effectiveness, efficiency or productivity. It is a
meta-activity with the goal to maximize the overall benefit of a set of other activities within the boundary condition of a
limited amount of time.
The interest in time management is not so new. The problem of how to manage time was already discussed in the
1950s and 1960s. Drucker (1967) and other authors proposed methods on how to handle time issues on the job. They
suggested simple remedies such as writing work plans down on paper (so-called “to-do lists”) in order to increase job
performance. At the same time, they recognized that planning tasks and activities does not always lead to the completion
of planned work, especially when time pressure is high. Insights were given into time-consuming activities, changing time
expenditure, and increasing workday efficiency by teaching people how to make a daily planning, how to prioritize tasks,
and how to handle unexpected tasks. Many books and articles were written to convey these and similar ideas to
managers, promising them a greater effectiveness while using less time. Over the years the focus of time management
publications and training courses has shifted from managers as the major target group to a broad audience of working
people (Claessens et al., 2007). According to Orlikowsky Yates (2002), the temporal dimension of work has become
more important because of expanding global competition and increased demands for immediate availability of products
and services. Garhammer (2002) has pointed at the increased pace of life shown in doing things faster, contracting time
expenditure and compressing actions. The increasing salience of time is reflected in theoretical as well as practical
publications (Claessens et al., 2007). A number of authors discussed the need for better incorporating time in theoretical
models and research designs (Ancona et al., 2001; George Jones, 2000; Wright, 2002). Others focused on the ways in

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which people in organizations manage their time, and on ways in which these efforts can be improved (Arkhangelskij,
2007; Bly, 2010; Forsyth, 2010).
Effective time management is clearly a factor in job performance and thus can contribute to an organization’s
profitability. Engaging in time management, particularly planning behaviours, can also contribute positively to group
performance (Janicik Bartel, 2003; Burt, et al., 2010). Furthermore, poor time management has been associated with
high stress and strain emotional exhaustion and health issues (Peeters Rutte, 2005).
This study aims to explore a theoretical conceptual model illustrating the problematic of time management.
2. Research Methodology
Research methodology is based on a comparative analysis and synthesis of the scientific literature and graphical
representation. Analysis of scientific literature revealed the importance of time management, basic time management
technologies and their features. Based on literature analysis and synthesis, the authors provide the conceptual model,
illustrating time management.
3. Findings
3.1 Definition of time management
There is no agreement on the definition of time management in the studies. The term “time management” is quite
misleading. Strictly speaking, time cannot be managed, because it is an inaccessible factor. Many authors agree that time
management involves the process of determining needs, setting goals to achieve these needs, prioritizing and planning
tasks required to achieve these goals. Definitions of time management by different authors are presented in table 1.
Table 1. Definitions of Time Management by Different Authors
Definition of time management Authors
Techniques for managing time. Jex Elacqua, 1999; Davis, 2000
A technique for effective time use, especially having enough time to accomplish the
tasks required
Slaven Totterdell, 1993; Orpen, 1994
Clusters of behaviours that are deemed to facilitate productivity and alleviate stress. Lay Schouwenburg, 1993
Planning and allocating time.
Burt Kemp, 1994; Francis-Smythe
Robertson, 1999
The degree to which individuals perceive their use of time to be structured and
purposive.
Strongman Burt, 2000; Sabelis, 2001
An application of self-regulation processes in the temporal domain. Griffiths, 2003
Self-regulation strategies aimed at discussing plans, and their efficiency. Eilam Aharon, 2003
Ways to assess the relative importance of activities through the development of a
prioritization plan.
Kaufman-Scarborough Lindquist, 1999
Behaviours that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain
goal-directed activities
Claessens et al., 2007
As it can be seen, the definitions provided above vary. After the analysis of different definitions and approaches in this
study, the definition provided by Claessens et al. (2007) is taken as a basis. Claessens et al. (2007) define time
management as “behaviours that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain goal-directed
activities”. This definition highlights that the use of time is not an aim in itself and cannot be pursued in isolation. The
focus is on some goal-directed activity, such as performing a work task or an academic duty, which is carried out in a way
that implies an effective use of time. These behaviours comprise:
• Time assessment behaviours, which aim at awareness of here and now or past, present, and future and self-
awareness of one’s time use, which help to accept tasks and responsibilities that fit within the limit of one’s
capabilities.
• Planning behaviours, such as setting goals, planning tasks, prioritising, making to-do lists, grouping tasks
which aim at an effective use of time.
• Monitoring behaviours, which aim at observing one’s use of time while performing activities, generating a
feedback loop that allows a limit to the influence of interruptions by others.

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Time management may be aided by a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when
accomplishing specific tasks, projects, and goals complying with a due date.
The major themes arising from the literature on time management include the following:
• Creating an environment conducive to effectiveness;
• Setting of priorities;
• Carrying out activity around those priorities;
• The related process of reduction of time spent on non-priorities.
3.2 The Main Time Management Techniques
There can be found different time management techniques presented and analysed in scientific literature. After analysis
of the research works of Lakein (1973), Hink Gineviþius, (2006), Bakanauskienơ Petkeviþiǌtơ (2003), Stoškus
Petukienơ (2008), Ferriss (2007), Tamoševiþienơ Rimkeviþienơ (2011), Zimmermann (2010), Raymond (2008), Bly
(2010), Burt et al. (2010) the main time management techniques are presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The Main Time Management Techniques
3.2.1 ABC analysis
A technique that has been used in business management for a long time is the categorization of large data into groups.
These groups are often marked A, B, and C—hence the name. Activities are ranked upon these general criteria:
• A – Tasks that are perceived as being urgent and important;
• B – Tasks that are important but not urgent;
• C – Tasks those are neither urgent nor important. (This list could also include tasks that are urgent but not
important.)
Each group is then rank-ordered in priority. To further refine priority, some individuals choose to then force-rank all
B items as either A or C. ABC analysis can incorporate more than three groups (Lakein, 1973). ABC analysis is
frequently combined with Pareto analysis.
3.2.2 Pareto analysis
This is the idea that 80% of tasks can be completed in 20% of the disposable time. The remaining 20% of tasks will take
up 80% of the time. This principle is used to sort tasks into two parts. According to this form of Pareto analysis it is
recommended that tasks that fall into the first category be assigned a higher priority.
The 80-20-rule can also be applied to increase productivity: it is assumed that 80% of the productivity can be
achieved by doing 20% of the tasks. Similarly, 80% of results can be attributed to 20% of activity. If productivity is the aim
of time management, then these tasks should be prioritized higher (Ferriss, 2007).
3.2.3 The Eisenhower Method
This method is said to have been used by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and is outlined in a quote attributed to

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him: “What is important is seldom urgent and what is urgent is seldom important”. The Eisenhower method helps to
decide which action you should or shouldn't do. It aids you to divide actions into one of four categories. Using this
method, all tasks are evaluated using the criteria important/unimportant and urgent/not urgent and then placed in
according quadrants in an Eisenhower Matrix, also known as an Eisenhower Box or Eisenhower Decision Matrix.
• Important/Urgent quadrants are done immediately and personally (e.g., crises, deadlines, problems);
• Important/Not Urgent quadrants get an end date and are done personally (e.g., relationships, planning,
recreation);
• Unimportant/Urgent quadrants are delegated (e.g., interruptions, meetings, activities);
• Unimportant/Not Urgent quadrants are dropped (e.g., time wasters, pleasant activities).
3.2.4 POSEC method
POSEC is an acronym for Prioritize by Organizing, Streamlining, Economizing and Contributing.
The method dictates a template which emphasizes an average individual's immediate sense of emotional and
monetary security. It suggests that by attending to one's personal responsibilities first, an individual is better positioned to
shoulder collective responsibilities.
Inherent in the acronym is a hierarchy of self-realization which mirrors Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of needs.
1. Prioritize - Your time and define your life by goals.
2. Organize - Things you have to accomplish regularly to be successful (Family and Finances).
3. Streamline - Things you may not like to do, but must do (Work and Chores).
4. Economize - Things you should do or may even like to do, but they're not pressingly urgent (Pastimes and
Socializing).
5. Contribute - By paying attention to the few remaining things that make a difference (Social Obligations).
3.2.5 The ALPS (ALPEN) method
The method allows planning a day in a very effective manner and stands for:
• A: to write down Tasks, Schedules and planned activities
• L: to assess duration of each activity
• P: to include buffer times for each task
• E: to make decisions meeting the priorities
• N: to recheck all the time
It is recommended usually to plan covering only 60% of the time. 40% should be reserved as a buffer.
3.2.6 Time management systems
Time management systems often include a time clock or web based application used to track an employee’s work hours.
Time management systems give employers insights into their workforce, allowing them to see, plan and manage
employees' time. Doing so allows employers to control labour costs and increase productivity. A time management
system automates processes, which eliminates paper work and tedious tasks.
The variety of personal digital assistants (PDAs) and computer-based time planner systems are available today.
No matter what you do, in whatever field, digital time management systems that you can tap into or load onto your
personal computer help to organize every part of your life (Tracy, 2013).
3.3 The Conceptual Model of Time Management
Time management has tended to be viewed as an individual responsibility. According to Dodd Sundheim (2005),
people who practice good time management techniques often find that they:
• are more productive,
• have more energy for things they need to accomplish,
• feel less stressed,
• are able to do the things they want,
• get more things done,

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• relate more positively to others, and
• feel better about them.
People have individual perceptions of time, different skills to realize themselves in time and use different time
management techniques. Their choices depend on the personality type, motivation, level of self-discipline and
surrounding environment.
The literature offers many procedures that are suggested to enhance ability to manage time or more precisely
manage the completion of tasks in an efficient and timely fashion (Burt et al., 2010). They have argue that time
management research needs to develop a broader theoretical framework which captures both the context within which
time management operates, and organizational time related objectives.
Time management training has frequently been suggested to increase an employee’s perceived control of time
(Claessens et al., 2004), which in turn will decrease work strain (Jex and Elacqua, 1999), and increase job performance.
Based on the analysis of scientific literature authors of the paper propose a conceptual model illustrating the
problematic of time planning and efficient use. The model consists of the following three major components: the problems
for individuals and organizations; time planning typology and techniques; and benefits for individual and organization (see
figure 2).
Figure 2. The Conceptual Model of Time Management
No business and activity in general can afford to have wasted time at work, especially when growth and results are
directly tied to how productive employees are. There are many time wasters that really eat into your time if you allow
them to. To free up your time it is necessary to identify those time wasters, decide what you want to do about them and
then take action. There is quite a big variety of the main time wasters discussed in the literature and empirical surveys.
Summarising it can be stated that lack of planning, prioritising and focus; interruptions; talking with the co-workers; lack of
delegation; non-work related Internet surfing; not saying 'No'; and useless meetings are the most common and biggest
time wasters.
An important role plays personality type and personal motivation for time management. Time management
environment may mediate the relationship between time management competencies and perceived control of time.
Positive time management environment should make it easier for employees to engage in time management behaviours
which may increase their perceived control of time.
An organization can also provide support for time management through the development of management systems
and policy, such as planning sessions, job descriptions, and performance appraisal systems, which will all help deliver the

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information and structure necessary for employees to manage their time. Furthermore, a culture which emphases “time
values”, where the importance of time to operations and the delivery of services is formally recognized may also help.
This may be partly achieved via the encouragement of co-worker interaction and the communication of the importance of
key time management related dimensions, such as jointly setting priorities, goals, task time requirements and schedules.
Positive effects of time management can be examined on perceived control of time, job performance, balanced
work load, work-family interference, job satisfaction, stress minimization and health.
4. Concluding Remarks
Effective time management is an important factor in job performance and thus can contribute to an individual and
organization’s results. Furthermore, poor time management has been associated with unperformed jobs, low quality of
work, high stress, strain, and emotional exhaustion.
Time management can be defined as behaviours that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing
certain goal-directed activities. These behaviours comprise time assessment behaviours, planning behaviours, and
monitoring behaviours.
Proposed conceptual model consists of three major components: the problems for individuals and organizations;
time planning typology and techniques; and benefits for individual and organization. Important role for time management
play personality type, personal motivation and surrounding environment. Positive effects of time management can be
examined on perceived control of time, job performance and job satisfaction, stress minimization and health.
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