The document discusses the origins of adolescence as a concept and the implications of developmental theories of youth. It notes that G. Stanley Hall first proposed the idea of adolescence as a distinct life stage in the late 1800s, describing it as a period of "storm and stress". This helped establish stereotypes of youth as inherently problematic compared to adults. The document warns that defining youth through developmental frameworks can marginalize some groups and be used to exert control over young people. If the definitions of youth built into policies and programs do not address how they may themselves contribute to issues, then tensions could persist for generations.
How young people are represented in the media in Argentina. Stereotypes and representations.
Roxana Morduchowicz, Ph.D., Director of Medias in Schools Program, Ministry of Education, Argentina.
Youth and Media -seminar, 16.9.2010, Helsinki.
How young people are represented in the media in Argentina. Stereotypes and representations.
Roxana Morduchowicz, Ph.D., Director of Medias in Schools Program, Ministry of Education, Argentina.
Youth and Media -seminar, 16.9.2010, Helsinki.
This material is from Filipino Values & Moral Development published by the Economic Development Foundations in November, 1992 The study was sponsored by the Philippine Senate and was headed by Senator Leticia Shahani. It was conducted by a task force headed by Dr. Patricia Licuanan. The findings were based on bibliographic surveys and interviews and consultations with researchers and practitioners in the behavioral and social sciences, education and social welfare, journalists and social analysts; a nationwide survey of 2000 respondents; and, focus group discussions among residents of an urban poor resettlement area in Bagong Bayan, Dasmariñas, Cavite. From the study was developed “A Moral Recovery Program – Building a People, Building a Nation” Submitted to the Philippine Senate.
chapter 16 Emotional and Social Development in Middle Adulthood.docxwalterl4
chapter 16 Emotional and Social Development in Middle Adulthood
Midlife is a time of increased generativity—giving to and guiding younger generations. Charles Callis, director of New Zealand’s Olympic Museum, shows visiting schoolchildren how to throw a discus. His enthusiastic demonstration conveys the deep sense of satisfaction he derives from generative activities.
chapter outline
· Erikson’s Theory: Generativity versus Stagnation
· ■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Generative Adults Tell Their Life Stories
Other Theories of Psychosocial Development in Midlife
· Levinson’s Seasons of Life
· Vaillant’s Adaptation to Life
· Is There a Midlife Crisis?
· Stage or Life Events Approach
Stability and Change in Self-Concept and Personality
· Possible Selves
· Self-Acceptance, Autonomy, and Environmental Mastery
· Coping with Daily Stressors
· Gender Identity
· Individual Differences in Personality Traits
· ■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT What Factors Promote Psychological Well-Being in Midlife?
Relationships at Midlife
· Marriage and Divorce
· Changing Parent–Child Relationships
· Grandparenthood
· Middle-Aged Children and Their Aging Parents
· Siblings
· Friendships
· ■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Grandparents Rearing Grandchildren: The Skipped-Generation Family
· Vocational Life
· Job Satisfaction
· Career Development
· Career Change at Midlife
· Unemployment
· Planning for Retirement
One weekend when Devin, Trisha, and their 24-year-old son, Mark, were vacationing together, the two middle-aged parents knocked on Mark’s hotel room door. “Your dad and I are going off to see a crafts exhibit,” Trisha explained. “Feel free to stay behind,” she offered, recalling Mark’s antipathy toward attending such events as an adolescent. “We’ll be back around noon for lunch.”
“That exhibit sounds great!” Mark replied. “I’ll meet you in the lobby.”
“Sometimes I forget he’s an adult!” exclaimed Trisha as she and Devin returned to their room to grab their coats. “It’s been great to have Mark with us—like spending time with a good friend.”
In their forties and fifties, Trisha and Devin built on earlier strengths and intensified their commitment to leaving a legacy for those who would come after them. When Mark faced a difficult job market after graduating from college, he returned home to live with Trisha and Devin and remained there for several years. With their support, he took graduate courses while working part-time, found steady employment in his late twenties, fell in love, and married in his mid-thirties. With each milestone, Trisha and Devin felt a sense of pride at having escorted a member of the next generation into responsible adult roles. Family activities, which had declined during Mark’s adolescent and college years, increased as Trisha and Devin related to their son as an enjoyable adult companion. Challenging careers and more time for community involvement, leisure pursuits, and each other contributed to a richly diverse and gratifying tim.
Despite huge gains in child well-being during the Millennium Development Goals era, progress for adolescents – children in the second decade of life – is still lagging behind. "The Handbook of Adolescent Development Research and its Impact on Global Policy" aims to fill critical evidence gaps to speed evolution of better policy-making specifically tuned to this dynamic life stage. This SlideShare gives an overview of the book, which is co-edited by Prerna Banati (UNICEF Innocenti) and Jennifer E Lansford (Duke University).
The book is available to pre-order now here: https://global.oup.com/academic/product/handbook-of-adolescent-development-research-and-its-impact-on-global-policy-9780190847128?cc=it&lang=en&
Please no plagiarism and make sure you are able to access all re.docxbunnyfinney
Please no plagiarism and make sure you are able to access all resource on your own before you bid.
One of the references
must
come from Broderick and Blewitt (2015)
. I need this completed by 12/22/17 at 6pm.
Assignment: The Development of Identity and Self-Concept
In 1975, Edward Tronick conducted an experiment referred to as the Still-Face Paradigm. In this experiment, mothers resisted interaction with their infants, providing no facial or vocal cues. After a few minutes, the mothers’ lack of attentiveness or “still face” began to weigh emotionally on the infants. The infants stared at the mothers, pointing and reaching out for reassurance. Eventually, the infants disengaged and cried until their mothers offered them comfort (Goldman, 2010).
As infants grow from toddlers to preschoolers, parents and primary caregivers have the greatest impact on identity and self-concept. As a child reaches elementary school, the influence of the parent wanes and various environments outside of the family unit take on greater importance. If a child is continually given a “still face” by his or her peers, what impact might this have on his or her identity? Similarly, if a child continually passes (or fails) spelling tests, what impact might this have on his or her identity development and feelings of self-worth?
For this Assignment, review the Learning Resources. Consider the factors that impact identity and self-concept in childhood and early adolescence.
Complete a 3- to 4-page paper in which you do the following:
Explain how identity and self-concept are developed from middle childhood through early adolescence, including how social, biological, and cultural factors might influence the developmental process
Explain how you might use this information in your future counseling practice
Justify your response with specific references to this week’s Learning Resources and the current literature
Readings
· Broderick, P. C., & Blewitt, P. (2015).
The life span: Human development for helping professionals
(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
o Chapter 6, “Realms of Cognition in Middle Childhood” (pp. 202-243)
o Chapter 7, “Self and Moral Development: Middle Childhood Through Early Adolescence” (pp. 244-281)
· Estell, D. B., Jones, M. H., Pearl, R., Van Acker, R., Farmer, T. W., & Rodkin, P. C. (2008). Peer groups, popularity, and social preference.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41
(1), 5–14.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
· Haste, H., & Abrahams, S. (2008). Morality, culture and the dialogic self: Taking cultural pluralism seriously.
Journal of Moral Education, 37
(3)
,
377–394.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
· Kuhn, D. (2008). Formal operations from a twenty-first century perspective.
Human Development, 51
(1), 48–55.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
· Psaltis, C., Duveen, G., & Perret-Clermont, A.-N. (2009). The social and the psychological: Structure and context in ...
i m Poverty Race, o f L o w - S k i l l e d gers at the.docxsheronlewthwaite
i m Poverty? Race,
o f L o w - S k i l l e d
gers at the Gates:
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ion and the Social
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:ess.
eroskedasticity-
Estimator and a
ry." Econometrica
ihood Estimation
metrica 50:1-25.
i Disadvantaged:
md Public Policy.
ago Press.
pears: The World
York: Alfred A .
M . Neckerman.
Structure: The
and Public Policy
? Poverty: What
1S. Danziger and
irvard University
md Moral Order.
fornia Press,
inants of Recent
;." International
innarelli. 2001.
'are Programs:
deralism: Issues
igton, DC: The
Loprest. 2001.
Disadvantaged
New World of
i d R. Haskins.
Institution.
98. Growing up
•en Adapt to Life
: Russell Sage
Violence, Older Peers, and the
Socialization of Adolescent Boys in
Disadvantaged Neighborhoods
David J. Harding
University of Michigan
Most theoretical perspectives on neighborhood effects on youth assume that
neighborhood context serves as a source of socialization. The exact sources and
processes underlying adolescent socialization in disadvantaged neighborhoods, however,
are largely unspecified and unelaborated. This article proposes that cross-cohort
socialization by older neighborhood peers is one source of socialization for adolescent
boys. Data from the National Educational Longitudinal Survey suggest that adolescents
in disadvantaged neighborhoods are more likely to spend time with older individuals. I
analyze qualitative interview data from 60 adolescent boys in three neighborhoods in
Boston to understand the causes and consequences of these interactions and
relationships. Some of the strategies these adolescents employ to cope with violence in
disadvantaged neighborhoods promote interaction with older peers, particularly those
who are most disadvantaged. Furthermore, such interactions can expose adolescents to
local, unconventional, or alternative cultural models.
Most theoretical perspectives on neighbor-hood effects on youth assume that the
neighborhood serves as a source of socialization,
particularly for adolescents. Through differen-
tial exposure to behavioral models or cultural
ideas, disadvantaged neighborhoods are thought
to influence how young people make decisions
in domains such as schooling and romantic rela-
tionships. For example, Wilson's (1996) social
isolation theory argues that residents o f poor
neighborhoods are isolated from middle class or
mainstream social groups, organizations, and
institutions as a result of joblessness. Social
isolation creates cultural isolation, which—
when combined with diminished educational
and labor market opportunities—leads to the
Direct correspondence to David J. Harding at
Department of Sociology, University of Michigan, ~
500 S. State St., A n n A r b o r , M I 48109-1382
([email protected]). Funding for this research
was provided by the National Science Foundation
(SES-0326727), The William T. Grant F ...
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Family Matters: The Family as a Resource for the Mental, Social, and Relation...Université de Montréal
Invited Plenary Presentation:
"Family Matters: The Family as a Resource for the Mental, Social, and Relational Well-Being of Youth Migrants, Asylum Seekers, & Other Displaced Populations"
Plenary Session: "The Mental Health and Well-Being of Children from Families Who Are Refugees, IDPs and Migrants"
Co-Chairs: Prof. Helen Herrman (Australia)
Prof. Vincenzo Di Nicola (Canada)
III Congress on Mental Health:
Meeting the Needs of the XXI Century
“Children, Society, and Future”
Moscow, Russian Federation
October 8, 2021
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16311.85920
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
1. The Birth of Adolescence: GS Hall
BYD
Dr. Fiona Beals
2. We need to be thinking about the
implications of knowledge for each time
when apply it to young people
3. “The ways in which adolescents are treated during their
teenage years create tensions that last forever.
Class, race, and gender identities are formed in
interaction with institutions. If the definitions of youth
that we build into our policies and programs in schools
and elsewhere are as much a part the problem as
they are a part of a supposed solution, then we risk
creating identities that will come back to haunt us for
generations to come”
(Michael Apple, 2001)
4. Academic theories
Written by adults
Defines ‘youth’/‘adolescence’ as different to ‘adults’
Young people are typically seen as developmentally
lacking adult traits
Young people are seen as a risk (at risk and a risk)
Developmental knowledge allows adult and adult
institutions to control the development of young people
Developmental knowledge also marginalises some
young people
5. The Birth of Industrial Society
The 1800s
Changes in the structure of
society were reflected in the
crimes of society
Increased deviance in
working-class populations
Increased deviance in
working-class children
Population Statistics
Calculations of Risk
Child Psychology
Mass Education
6. Economic Instability
The 1890s
Reflections of the
depression
Increased crime of the
working-class
The rise of the adolescent
delinquent
Statistics
Eugenics
G.S. Hall
Education
7. The birth of adolescence
G. Stanley Hall
Combination of myth and scientific truth
Explained a social condition psychologically
The birth of stereotypes
The ‘problem’ of adolescence
‘Storm and stress’
Developmentally different
Needing guidance and control
11. Recapitulation Theory
Stereotyped all young people as different to
adults and problematic
Raging hormones
Propensity to deviance
Positioned some young people as more
problematic than others … groups who would be
seen in the years following as being trapped in
dependency and adolescence
13. "When I became interested in this subject, I found teachers and
social workers who would point directly to this child or that one
and say he was well on his way to becoming a serial murderer or
some other kind of criminal. In some instances, they would make
these disturbing predictions within the child's hearing. They
would give up on children as young as five and seven years old,
allowing them to drift through their classrooms or placements,
hoping the child would not harm anyone while under their watch.
'I just hope I'm not around when he explodes,' one teacher said to
me of a child I tutored. She believed that there was nothing she
nor anyone else could do to straighten him out. 'Whether it's
genetics or environment, it's over for this child. Move on to
another.'
14. I did not believe that was true. After writing this book, I know it is
not. The problem is adults allowing children who are already well
on their way to sociopathic behaviour - children who clearly
exhibit ominous warnings - to continue freely down such a path.
Just as disturbing are the parents who turn a blind eye or are in
denial of their children's bullying or maladaptive behavior,
attraction to violence, or interest and accumulation of weapons,
especially guns. In my research, I could see the patterns of
behavior that led professionals to proclaim that a child was a
ticking bomb. But I came to believe that it was a self-fulfilling
prophecy only if nothing was done for the child"
(Toth, 2002, 282-283)
15. “In classrooms around New Zealand, right now, there are a
number of children whose destiny is already in place –
unless a miracle occurs in their life, they will come to
prison … And the age of these children? … the children I
am thinking of are currently 5, 6 and 7 years of age. They
are children who occupy the thoughts of teachers as they
try to change the destiny already visible; children who will
struggle every moment of their life simply because of the
reality into which they were born”
(Lashlie, 2002, 12)
16. References
Beals, F. (2000). Youth-at-risk: definition, identification, intervention and prevention. In School of
Education (Ed.), Victoria-Police Education Programme: EDUC 114 understanding human
development and behaviour. Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington.
Beals, F. M. (2004). Education, Lily's Medicinal Compound for Today's Wayward Youth. Paper
presented at the Conference Name|. Retrieved Access Date|. from URL|.
Beals, F. M. (2006a). Digital Connections: Alternative methods of building connections with young
people. Paper presented at the Conference Name|. Retrieved Access Date|. from URL|.
Beals, F. M. (2006b). Reading between the lines: Representations and constructions of youth and
crime in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy (Education) thesis, Victoria
University of Wellington, Wellington.
Beals, F. M. (In Progress). It's not just empowering: The implications of psychology and risk
knowledge in explanations of youth crime.
Beals, F. M. (Work in Progress). Socialisation, Risk, and Education: Youth-at-risk in Education.
Teachers College Record.
Epstein, R. (2007). The case against adolescence: Rediscovering the adult in every teen. Sanger,
California: Quill Driver Books.
Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R. (1997). Critical Discourse Analysis. In T. A. Van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse
as Social Interaction: discourse studies: a multidisciplinary introduction (Vol. 2, pp. 258-284).
London: Sage Publications.
Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: The birth of the prison (A. Sheridan, Trans.). London:
Penguin Books.
Fowler, R. (1991). Language in the News: discourse and ideology in the press. London:
Routledge.
17. References
France, A. (2007). Understanding youth in late modernity. Maidenhead, United
Kingdom: Open University Press.
Gordon, C. (Ed.). (1980). Power/Knowledge: selected interviews & other writings 1972-
1977 by Michel Foucault. New York: Pantheon Books.
Lesko, N. (1996a). Denaturalizing Adolescence: the politics of contemporary
representations. Youth & Society, 28(2), 139-161.
Lesko, N. (1996b). Past, Present, and Future Conceptions of Adolescence. Educational
Theory, 46(4), 453-472.
Lesko, N. (2001). Act Your Age! A cultural construction of adolescence. New York:
Routledge Falmer.
Poynting, S., & White, R. (2004). Youth Work: challenging the soft cop syndrome.
Youth Studies Australia, 23(4), 39-45.
Shaw, J. (2005). Body Mind Spirit: You shake that fist! Tearaway Retrieved 19 May,
2005, from http://tearaway.co.nz/Article.aspx?PostingID=4384
Stereotype. (2006, 19 November). Retrieved 21 November, 2006, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotypes
White, R., & Wyn, J. (2007). Youth and Society: Exploring the social dynamics of youth
experience (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Wyn, J., & White, R. (1997). Rethinking Youth. London: Sage Publications.
Wyn, J., & White, R. (2000). Negotiating Social Change: the paradox of youth. Youth &
Society, 32(2), 165-183.
Editor's Notes
This module is aimed at getting us to think about the implications of knowledge. It requires us to start and finish on the idea that every time we apply a knowledge about adolescence (psychology) or youth (sociology) there are effects. Knowledge is not an objective God which defines the nature of adolescence or youth objectively with no, or little effect, people apply knowledge and that application has effects. A famous educational thinker, Michael Apple, touches upon this in the preface of Nancy Lesko’s (2001) text: Act Your Age!:
Apple (2001) draws our attention to the relationships institutions have with young people. He argues that how young people see themselves (their identities) are shaped by these relationships. He prompts us to realize that the definitions we have about young people can be “as much a part of the problem as they are part of a supposed solution”. So, he is drawing our attention to knowledge and the implications that can happen in our relationships with young people if that knowledge is problematic.
Institution 1 – the media – how does that portray youth
Have students look at headlines and reflect on the what effect these headlines have on youth
Institution 2 Academia
Have students talk about the psychological time of adolescence – how is it defined through psychology – is it possible that psychological knowledge might pose problems for youth as well - explain
Academic theories are written by adults, not young people, and are an attempt by adults to define youth and adolescents through their difference to adults. We can take this to mean that these theories generally emphasise the difference between adolescents and adults –young people are not adults because they: biologically are still becoming adults, psychologically are coming to terms with a developing adult identity, and socially are learning to find their independence. Often developmental theories focus on the ‘lack’ of adult traits in adolescents. That is adolescents do not have the necessary traits to be defined as adults.
Furthermore, as we have already discussed, academic theories often focus on the risk of adolescence – the vulnerability of the young person and the potential risk that that young person could pose to society. For example, Hall’s (1905) theory did not just talk about adolescence as a time of vulnerability for the adolescence – he also connected that vulnerability to the future of civilised society.
So developmental knowledge does not just provide adults with a tool to understand young people, it also provides adults with a tool to be able to control the development of young people. Through definitions like ‘dependence’, adults are able to argue that young people need adult society to aid them in achieving healthy developmental outcomes. For the most part this is true and helpful but these theories, which adults tend to assume to be universal, are not appropriate for all young people and the effect of applying these theories is the risk of stereotyping all young people. Furthermore, although these theories may be helpful many young people are marginalised through these theories.
A history of psychology, with regard to children and youth, is closely connected to a history of industrial society. Indeed, if we look back over history, we will find that a times of structural change and instability contemporary societies tended to associate risk and deviance with young people and minority groups. Psychology was one knowledge that allowed for a definition of the problem and the discovery of solutions. Another knowledge that has emerged alongside psychology has been risk knowledge. Although the evidence of this knowledge predates the industrial revolution, we can find on closer inspection that, during the beginnings of industrial society, people started to associate risk with dangerous populations rather than feats of adventure and dare (Douglas, 1992).
The birth of industrial society occurred in the late 1700s and early 1800s. During this time changes in the structure of society were also reflected in the crimes of society. Movement of families and the creation of the class structure – the advent of child labour
Psychology provided the middleclass population a tool to aid in the ‘betterment’ of workingclasses. However, there was also another edge to psychology.
Alongside increased urbanization, there was an increase in the crime rate, in particular, property crime The advent of population statistics allowed the governing middleclasses to associate risk with the workingclass population (Pratt, 1997). The advent of psychology and mass education allowed for workingclass children to be taken out of the workplace and off the urban streets into the school yard where they could be controlled through socialization and the supervision of adult teachers (Donzelot, 1979).
If we move on in history to the late 1800s and early 1900s we can see the same pattern emerging where an economic depression led to social instability. Alongside these changes, there was a rise in deviance particularly by young people who, in effect, were sandwiched between the end of compulsory schooling (due to age) and the beginning of working life. Alongside these changes, the popularity of eugenics saw governing populations in industrial society attribute deviance and/or pathology to minority groups in society (women, ethnic groups, and workingclasses) and, within psychology, Granville Stanley Hall (Hall, 1905)discovered a new developmental period which he called ‘adolescence’. Rather than associated deviance with the structural changes in society, Hall associated adolescent deviance with an inner turmoil he labeled “storm and stress” (p.xiii).
Granville Stanley Hall has been given the label of the ‘father of adolescence’. Hall discovered adolescence at the end of the 19th Century. Indeed, it was Hall who first used the term ‘adolescence’ to describe a period of development. At that time western societies were going through economic and social turmoil and young people were seen as a problematic population group as they engaged in crime and deviance. Hall combined two theories to describe these young people (Lesko, 2001) evolution theory and recapitulation theory. In effect, we could now say that Hall combined myth or folklore (recapitulation theory) with a newly emerging science (evolution). Through combining these theories, Hall was able to describe a problem (that on the face of it seemed quite social – changes in the economy of western countries were leading to problems with young people) as a psychological problem (the inner turmoil of adolescence).
Not only could we attribute Hall with the birth of adolescence but we could also attribute him with the development of youth stereotypes – stereotypes that remain with us today. Hall saw adolescence as a problematic time of “storm and stress” (p.xiii). He was the first to argue that young people were developmentally different to adults – before Hall young people transitioned directly from child to adult. Hall also argued that the developmental difference and vulnerability of adolescents posed a risk to adult society which adult society needed to guide and control. In effect, Hall’s theory led to the marginalisation of young people from adult society – but it also had other effects. Click through the following flash animation to see Hall’s theory at work.
The basis for Hall’s theory was a combination of recapitulation theory and evolutionary theory. Basically, recapitulation theory was a theory of the ranking of the world’s races or ethnicities. Recapitulation theory stressed that the development of civilizations was like a tree – where cultures developed out of savagery into a more civilized position. Cultures were thought as having to go through a turbulent adolescence as they slowly evolved into a civilized position. By combining recapitulation theory with evolutionary theory, people were able to argue that races which could not attain to a civilized position would simply die off – a survival of the fittest scenario.
Hall took the basis of these theories and replaced the terms with developmental ones – civilised with adulthood, savagery with childhood, and the transitional and turbulent moment as adolescence. Nowadays, we would see Hall’s logic as quite absurd as it seems totally illogical to equate human development with cultural development. However, at the time it was highly logical (Beals, In Progress).
In recapitulation theory civilisation equated with technology whereas savagery was closely connected to nature and the wild. At that time, popular Victorian conceptions of childhood also saw childhood connected with nature and adulthood connected with learned technology. So Hall’s transition in his theory was quite logical and made clear sense to his audience. However, it also had implications for young people from minority groups and cultures.
In effect, the first effect of Hall’s was the stereotyping of all young people as different to adults and problematic. Hall did not see adolescence as a time of promise but, rather, as a time of concern. He argued that all young people had to succumb to raging hormones and as a consequence Hall found that all young people had a propensity to deviance. For Hall, it was only through guidance and control that adult society could counter the effects of adolescence. Additionally, Hall’s theory also positioned some young people as more problematic than others … groups who would be seen later as being trapped in dependency and adolescence.
Lesko (2001) argues that through Hall’s theory many cultural and minority groups (working class, women, etc) would be trapped through definition in childhood or adolescence. To see this in action we need to look at the original recapitulation theory as it applied to races. In recapitulation theory, colonial society needed to encourage ethnic minorities to aspire to become civilized. Across colonial countries, this often happened through policies of assimilation. Assimilation is the attempt of one culture to integrate a minority culture within its own. We can see an extreme example of this in the lost generation in Australian history where young aboriginal children were taken from their birth parents and based into borstals or Caucasian families to learn the ways of the ‘white man’ and to marry Caucasian partners (in order to breed the aboriginal blood out of them). We can also see assimilation in history of New Zealand where, in the past, Maori people were banned from speaking Maori and made to go to Maori schools in order to become civilized. These cultural groups were never fully assimilated through these policies. Instead, there differences were exasperated as they experienced inequalities from a variety of dimensions.
Returning to Lesko’s (2001) point on recapitulation theory, she argues that ethnic minority youth, through Hall’s ideas, can never really achieve adulthood – that, because of their cultural difference, they will always be trapped in childhood or adolescence. We can see evidence in her argument throughout the history of psychology in western societies where cultural minorities tend to be always shown as a risk group and lacking the abilities of their Caucasian peers.
Lesko argues that the same problem is evident for young women and lower socio-economic groups as Hall’s theory was based on male youth and middle-class groups. Many of us would argue that Hall’s theory is no longer relevant. But, we still do use references to Hall’s theory in our everyday commonsense knowledge of youth – even though it has been long recognized that he based his theory on a problematic model of civilization. Hall’s ideas have also been reinforced through other popular theories of human development.
Spend a moment thinking and reflecting about the use of risk factors as commonsense. What are your feelings about how risk factors are being used or misused?