T H E
B I R T H
O F T H E
I M A G I N A T I O N
a
O n e d a y i n t h e a u t u m n o f 1879 a S p an ish n o b le m an an d his d au g h te r set o u t on a
little ad v en tu re. T h e y w ere g o in g to ex p lo re a cave n o t far fro m the fam ily estate at
P u en te S an M iguel, in th e C a n ta b ria reg io n o f n o rth e rn Spain. T h e n o b le m a n ’s nam e
was M arcelin o Sanz de S au tu o la, an d his d au g h te r - n o t yet in h er teen s - was called
M a ria . T o g eth er they m ad e fo r the hillside o f A ltam ira, w hich h ad lately b een re p o rte d
as a site o f p reh isto ric o ccu p atio n . T o u se th e language o f th e tim e, A ltam ira was th e so rt
o f place w here troglodytes o r ‘p eo p le b efo re A d a m ’ w ere th o u g h t to have sheltered.
As a keen a m ate u r archaeologist, de S au tu o la h a d high h o p es o f w h at h e m ig h t find
at A ltam ira. T h e b o n es o f stran g e anim als m ig h t be scattered aro u n d ; p e rh a p s traces o f
fires kindled lo n g ago. W ith an y luck, an d close investigation o f th e cave floor, som e
ru d im e n ta ry tools o r im p lem e n ts m ig h t also b e retrieved.
D e S au tu o la was n o t m erely h u n tin g fo r curiosities. W h e n it cam e to p u b lish in g
his discoveries a t A ltam ira, h e gravely n o te d th a t his u ltim ate m otive fo r m aking the
ex p ed itio n w ith M a ria was to ‘te a r away th e th ick veil th a t separates us fro m th e origins
an d cu sto m s o f th e an cien t in h a b ita n ts o f th ese m o u n ta in s’. O n ce h e an d M a ria were
inside the cave, he c ro u c h ed d o w n an d b eg an to exam ine th e g ro u n d by la n tern light.
It w as cool a n d d am p in th e cave, b u t spacious too. W hile h er fath e r w as poking an d
6 A detail o f th e cave paintings at Altamira, Spain, c. 11,000 BC. which Maria and Marcelino d e Sautuola
discovered by chance.
TH E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N
s c ra p in g a t th e floor, M a ria w a n d e re d o f f to d o so m e ex p lo rin g o f h e r ow n. It w as n o t
lo n g b e fo re th e d ark n e ss o f A lta m ira e c h o e d w ith a c h ild ’s w o n d ro u s cry.
‘L o o k , P a p a - p a in tin g s o f o x en !’
So a y o u n g girl w as th e firs t m o d e rn h u m a n to set eyes u p o n th e ‘g allery ’ o f
p re h is to ric p a in tin g s fo r w h ic h A lta m ira w o u ld b e c o m e re n o w n e d (Fig. 6).
B ein g sm all, M a ria h a d a b e tte r view o f th e cav e’s low ceiling th a n h e r father.
H o w ev er, h e r re c o g n itio n o f th e an im als w h o se im ag es w ere ra n g e d o v er A lta m ira ’s
n a tu ra l v au lt was n o t q u ite a c c u ra te . T h e s e w ere a u ro c h s - a ty p e o f b is o n th a t h a d b e e n
e x tin c t fo r th o u sa n d s o f yea.
Homartian where is your Indigenous CityJohn Latham
Homartian
WHERE IS YOUR INDIGENOUS CITY
THIS REFLECTS:
CHARACTER & TRUTH IN & ABOUT
THE LAND WATER & SKY OF HOBART.
It is a partial lyrical geographic melody sharing affection and future for Tasmanians & Visitors too.
Homartian where is your Indigenous CityJohn Latham
Homartian
WHERE IS YOUR INDIGENOUS CITY
THIS REFLECTS:
CHARACTER & TRUTH IN & ABOUT
THE LAND WATER & SKY OF HOBART.
It is a partial lyrical geographic melody sharing affection and future for Tasmanians & Visitors too.
The Breakup of the Roman Empire 2 2 3 f o r f e r o c i t .docxmattinsonjanel
The Breakup of the Roman Empire 2 2 3
f o r f e r o c i t y . L i v i n g u n d e r the specter o f s t a r v a -
t i o n , they l usted after the great riches a n d easy
lifestyles they observed i n the u r b a n i z e d e m p i r e s
o f R o m e a n d Persia.
I n 3 7 6 , i n w h a t is n o w s o u t h R u s s i a , a n
a r m y o f H u n s d r o v e a g r o u p o f V i s i g o t h s f r o m
t h e i r f a r m l a n d s . T h e V i s i g o t h refugees g a i n e d
p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r V a l e n s t o
cross t h e D a n u b e a n d settle i n t h e B a l k a n s i n
r e t u r n f o r s u p p l y i n g t r o o p s t o t h e R o m a n
a r m y . I n t h e p a s t , R o m a n r u l e r s h a d f r e q u e n t l y
m a d e t h i s s o r t o f a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e R o m a n
o f f i c i a l s i n c h a r g e o f t h i s r e s e t t l e m e n t , h o w e v e r ,
e x p l o i t e d the refugees b y c h a r g i n g them, e x o r b i -
t a n t fees f o r f o o d a n d s u p p l i e s . I n 3 7 8 t h e
V i s i g o t h s r e v o l t e d . A t t h e B a t t l e o f A d r i a n o p l e
i n T h r a c e t h e y k i l l e d Val ens a n d d e s t r o y e d a n
e n t i r e R o m a n a r m y .
T h e V i s i g o t h s ' successful rebeUion w o u n d e d
the e m p i r e , b u t n o t f a r a l l y . Rome's response t o the
disaster, h o w e v e r , s o w e d the seeds f o r a loss o f
i m p e r i a l p o w e r i n d i e west. Necessity f o r c e d the
n e w emperor, T h e o d o s i u s the G r e a t , t o p e r m i t
V i s i g o t h i c soldiers t o serve i n the R o m a n a r m y
u n d e r t h e i r o w n V i s i g o t h i c c o m m a n d e r s . B u t
a l l o w i n g i n d e p e n d e n t m i l i t a r y forces o f d u b i o u s
l o y a l t y t o operate freely w i t h i n the e m p i r e was a
t e r r i b l e m i s t a k e . T h e consequences o f T h e o d o -
sius's d e c i s i o n became a l l t o o clear i n the m i d -
390s w h e n A l a r i c , the n e w V i s i g o t h i c k i n g , began
t o p l u n d e r R o m a n cities i n the Balkans a n d
Greece. A s discussed at the b e g i n n i n g o f this chap-
ter, i n 4 0 1 A l a r i c a n d his t r o o p s sacked R o m e f o r
rhree days. Senators a n d citizens c o u l d o n l y w a t c h
as the V i s i g o t h s r a m p a g e d t h r o u g h their streets.
T h e V i s i g o t h s ' sack o f R o m e n o t o n l y d e a l t
a p s y c h o l o g i c a l b l o w t o the e m p i r e ' s i n h a b i -
t a n t s , i t also l e d i n d i r e c t l y t o t h e loss o f m a n y o f
R o m e ' s w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s . T o f i g h t A l a r i c ,
R o m e ' s a r m i e s w i t h d r e w f r o m the e m p i r e ' s
n o r t h w e s t e r n defenses, l e a v i n g t h e f r o n t i e r i n
B r i t a i n a n d a l o n g the R h i n e v u l n e r a b l e . I n
B r i t a i n , R o m e a b a n d o n e d its c o n t r o l e n t i r e l y ...
No "20/20 hindsight" jokes.
Just clear, concise suggestions, axioms and guidance for any business and brand's success in 2020 and beyond.
Share all you like.
Take a few moments to research the contextual elements surrounding P.docxperryk1
Take a few moments to research the contextual elements surrounding President Kennedy’s inauguration in 1961 and then critically examine this speech:
“Inaugural Address,” by John F. KennedyLinks to an external site.<
https://urldefense.com/v3/__https://nam01.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https*3A*2F*2Furldefense.com*2Fv3*2F__https*3A*2F*2Fwww.jfklibrary.org*2FAsset-Viewer*2FBqXIEM9F4024ntFl7SVAjA.aspx__*3B!!ACPuPu0!nRyVaN_vHAO7VokwK2jIluLRE3Rbgg_zTzlKs2LU0jy7JJDLOQzoLng5O9kq8Ar2xqOxu6ASoTCCAw*24&data=02*7C01*7Cs3521396*40students.fscj.edu*7C3dbff0e6302e40df260508d83ebef2dd*7C4258f8b94f8d44abb87f21ab35a63470*7C0*7C0*7C637328337145689500&sdata=rjSnrpQbmBtBYheBjJTh*2B57JapV8a8uLTbS*2BwaXQFps*3D&reserved=0__;JSUlJSUlJSUlJSUlJSUlJSUlJSUlJSU!!ACPuPu0!lzlmNESbzfxzfV0D2RFZGvC0P4JM5SVIIXnoztdLO3J83rBb44XpTJOZcRrT89Wp_du_$
> is made available by the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. It is in the public domain.
In a short rhetorical analysis (minimum of four paragraphs in length), please answer all of the questions below. Your work should include an introduction, a body of supporting evidence, and a conclusion. Please take some time to edit your writing for punctuation, usage, and clarity prior to submission.
Questions for Analysis
1. Which important historical and social realities had an impact on this speech in 1961, and how do these contextual elements figure in President Kennedy’s organization of this speech?
2. What is President Kennedy saying about the nature of human progress (science and technology) and the challenges that we must navigate as a global community? Are these challenges unique to 1961, or relative throughout human history?
3. What are the goals of this speech? Isolate at least three aims of President Kennedy’s address, identify his strategy for supporting these goals, and critique their efficacy. Is this an effective speech? Where applicable, please include a quotation or two from the speech.
In a rhetorical analysis (minimum of eight paragraphs in length), please answer all of the questions below. Your work should include an introduction, a body of supporting evidence, and a conclusion. Please take some time to edit your writing for punctuation, usage, and clarity prior to submission.
Questions for Analysis
1. How does Jefferson organize this important document? How many subdivisions does it have, how do they operate, and how does his approach to organization impact the document’s efficacy?
2. Using at least one citation from the text, analyze Jefferson’s approach to style, voice, and tone. How does he create a sense of urgency in moving toward the conclusion of the work?
3. The complexities of this document’s reach are immense. How many different audiences was Jefferson writing to, and what were the needs of those different groups?
4. In terms of the approaches to formal rhetoric that we studied in the first learning module, which does The Declaration of Independence most closely resemble? .
Table of Contents Section 2 Improving Healthcare Quality from.docxperryk1
Table of Contents Section 2: Improving Healthcare Quality from Within Week 4
Week 4 - Assignment: Interpret Performance Measures
Week 4 - Assignment: Interpret
Performance Measures
Instructions
Course Home Content Dropbox Grades Bookshelf ePortfolio Library The Commons Calendar
You have just been appointed as the administrator of a large managed healthcare organization
with multiple facilities in your state, including facilities in city X and Y (table below). A task your
office is charged with is to reimburse facilities based on how they perform on a set of healthcare
quality measures.
Based on the information provided below, what considerations will you make in your decision-
making process? To complete this assignment, prepare a PowerPoint presentation that
highlights whether or not these two facilities (A and B) should be treated equally when
conducting your assessment. If any, what are the implications of treating these facilities as
equals for the purpose of comparison? Also, address the techniques you will use to ensure these
facilities are assessed fairly.
Measures Facility A Facility B
1
Population
characteristics
City X: Mostly people
with high economic
status and those with
more than high school
education
City Y: Mostly people
with low economic
status, minorities,
high school or less
education
2 Population served All ages
Mostly older adults
and people with
disabilities and
chronic conditions
3
Staff to patient
ratio
1:4 1:8
4
Physician and
nurses continuing
education
Required Required
5 Average number of
hours staff work
per week
50 hours 60 hours
Reflect in ePortfolio
Submissions
No submissions yet. Drag and drop to upload your assignment below.
Drop files here, or click below!
Upload Choose Existing
You can upload files up to a maximum of 1 GB.
Length: 8-10 slides (excluding title slide and references slide)
References: Include a minimum of 3-5 peer-reviewed, scholarly resources referenced on a
separate slide at the end of your presentation.
Your assignment should reflect scholarly academic writing, current APA standards,
Record
Week 4
Course Home Content Dropbox Grades Bookshelf More
Interpreting Performance Improvement Measures
and Benchmarking
As a healthcare administrator/manager, it is in your best
interest to help the facility you serve to move in the
direction charted in the National Quality Strategy (Joshi et
al., 2014). Organizations that fail to meet set standards are
known to face sanctions and sometimes required to close
shop. In consideration of this, you will want to ensure that
the facility you manage is adopting a culture of quality that
puts its patients at the center of healthcare delivery. You will
want to do this by making sure that your facility provides
quality patient care, while also keeping the facility’s
bottom-line healthy.
To ensure you are moving in the right direction, you must
measure and monitor key qual.
More Related Content
Similar to T H E B I R T H O F T H E I M A G I N A T I O N.docx
The Breakup of the Roman Empire 2 2 3 f o r f e r o c i t .docxmattinsonjanel
The Breakup of the Roman Empire 2 2 3
f o r f e r o c i t y . L i v i n g u n d e r the specter o f s t a r v a -
t i o n , they l usted after the great riches a n d easy
lifestyles they observed i n the u r b a n i z e d e m p i r e s
o f R o m e a n d Persia.
I n 3 7 6 , i n w h a t is n o w s o u t h R u s s i a , a n
a r m y o f H u n s d r o v e a g r o u p o f V i s i g o t h s f r o m
t h e i r f a r m l a n d s . T h e V i s i g o t h refugees g a i n e d
p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r V a l e n s t o
cross t h e D a n u b e a n d settle i n t h e B a l k a n s i n
r e t u r n f o r s u p p l y i n g t r o o p s t o t h e R o m a n
a r m y . I n t h e p a s t , R o m a n r u l e r s h a d f r e q u e n t l y
m a d e t h i s s o r t o f a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e R o m a n
o f f i c i a l s i n c h a r g e o f t h i s r e s e t t l e m e n t , h o w e v e r ,
e x p l o i t e d the refugees b y c h a r g i n g them, e x o r b i -
t a n t fees f o r f o o d a n d s u p p l i e s . I n 3 7 8 t h e
V i s i g o t h s r e v o l t e d . A t t h e B a t t l e o f A d r i a n o p l e
i n T h r a c e t h e y k i l l e d Val ens a n d d e s t r o y e d a n
e n t i r e R o m a n a r m y .
T h e V i s i g o t h s ' successful rebeUion w o u n d e d
the e m p i r e , b u t n o t f a r a l l y . Rome's response t o the
disaster, h o w e v e r , s o w e d the seeds f o r a loss o f
i m p e r i a l p o w e r i n d i e west. Necessity f o r c e d the
n e w emperor, T h e o d o s i u s the G r e a t , t o p e r m i t
V i s i g o t h i c soldiers t o serve i n the R o m a n a r m y
u n d e r t h e i r o w n V i s i g o t h i c c o m m a n d e r s . B u t
a l l o w i n g i n d e p e n d e n t m i l i t a r y forces o f d u b i o u s
l o y a l t y t o operate freely w i t h i n the e m p i r e was a
t e r r i b l e m i s t a k e . T h e consequences o f T h e o d o -
sius's d e c i s i o n became a l l t o o clear i n the m i d -
390s w h e n A l a r i c , the n e w V i s i g o t h i c k i n g , began
t o p l u n d e r R o m a n cities i n the Balkans a n d
Greece. A s discussed at the b e g i n n i n g o f this chap-
ter, i n 4 0 1 A l a r i c a n d his t r o o p s sacked R o m e f o r
rhree days. Senators a n d citizens c o u l d o n l y w a t c h
as the V i s i g o t h s r a m p a g e d t h r o u g h their streets.
T h e V i s i g o t h s ' sack o f R o m e n o t o n l y d e a l t
a p s y c h o l o g i c a l b l o w t o the e m p i r e ' s i n h a b i -
t a n t s , i t also l e d i n d i r e c t l y t o t h e loss o f m a n y o f
R o m e ' s w e s t e r n p r o v i n c e s . T o f i g h t A l a r i c ,
R o m e ' s a r m i e s w i t h d r e w f r o m the e m p i r e ' s
n o r t h w e s t e r n defenses, l e a v i n g t h e f r o n t i e r i n
B r i t a i n a n d a l o n g the R h i n e v u l n e r a b l e . I n
B r i t a i n , R o m e a b a n d o n e d its c o n t r o l e n t i r e l y ...
No "20/20 hindsight" jokes.
Just clear, concise suggestions, axioms and guidance for any business and brand's success in 2020 and beyond.
Share all you like.
Take a few moments to research the contextual elements surrounding P.docxperryk1
Take a few moments to research the contextual elements surrounding President Kennedy’s inauguration in 1961 and then critically examine this speech:
“Inaugural Address,” by John F. KennedyLinks to an external site.<
https://urldefense.com/v3/__https://nam01.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https*3A*2F*2Furldefense.com*2Fv3*2F__https*3A*2F*2Fwww.jfklibrary.org*2FAsset-Viewer*2FBqXIEM9F4024ntFl7SVAjA.aspx__*3B!!ACPuPu0!nRyVaN_vHAO7VokwK2jIluLRE3Rbgg_zTzlKs2LU0jy7JJDLOQzoLng5O9kq8Ar2xqOxu6ASoTCCAw*24&data=02*7C01*7Cs3521396*40students.fscj.edu*7C3dbff0e6302e40df260508d83ebef2dd*7C4258f8b94f8d44abb87f21ab35a63470*7C0*7C0*7C637328337145689500&sdata=rjSnrpQbmBtBYheBjJTh*2B57JapV8a8uLTbS*2BwaXQFps*3D&reserved=0__;JSUlJSUlJSUlJSUlJSUlJSUlJSUlJSU!!ACPuPu0!lzlmNESbzfxzfV0D2RFZGvC0P4JM5SVIIXnoztdLO3J83rBb44XpTJOZcRrT89Wp_du_$
> is made available by the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. It is in the public domain.
In a short rhetorical analysis (minimum of four paragraphs in length), please answer all of the questions below. Your work should include an introduction, a body of supporting evidence, and a conclusion. Please take some time to edit your writing for punctuation, usage, and clarity prior to submission.
Questions for Analysis
1. Which important historical and social realities had an impact on this speech in 1961, and how do these contextual elements figure in President Kennedy’s organization of this speech?
2. What is President Kennedy saying about the nature of human progress (science and technology) and the challenges that we must navigate as a global community? Are these challenges unique to 1961, or relative throughout human history?
3. What are the goals of this speech? Isolate at least three aims of President Kennedy’s address, identify his strategy for supporting these goals, and critique their efficacy. Is this an effective speech? Where applicable, please include a quotation or two from the speech.
In a rhetorical analysis (minimum of eight paragraphs in length), please answer all of the questions below. Your work should include an introduction, a body of supporting evidence, and a conclusion. Please take some time to edit your writing for punctuation, usage, and clarity prior to submission.
Questions for Analysis
1. How does Jefferson organize this important document? How many subdivisions does it have, how do they operate, and how does his approach to organization impact the document’s efficacy?
2. Using at least one citation from the text, analyze Jefferson’s approach to style, voice, and tone. How does he create a sense of urgency in moving toward the conclusion of the work?
3. The complexities of this document’s reach are immense. How many different audiences was Jefferson writing to, and what were the needs of those different groups?
4. In terms of the approaches to formal rhetoric that we studied in the first learning module, which does The Declaration of Independence most closely resemble? .
Table of Contents Section 2 Improving Healthcare Quality from.docxperryk1
Table of Contents Section 2: Improving Healthcare Quality from Within Week 4
Week 4 - Assignment: Interpret Performance Measures
Week 4 - Assignment: Interpret
Performance Measures
Instructions
Course Home Content Dropbox Grades Bookshelf ePortfolio Library The Commons Calendar
You have just been appointed as the administrator of a large managed healthcare organization
with multiple facilities in your state, including facilities in city X and Y (table below). A task your
office is charged with is to reimburse facilities based on how they perform on a set of healthcare
quality measures.
Based on the information provided below, what considerations will you make in your decision-
making process? To complete this assignment, prepare a PowerPoint presentation that
highlights whether or not these two facilities (A and B) should be treated equally when
conducting your assessment. If any, what are the implications of treating these facilities as
equals for the purpose of comparison? Also, address the techniques you will use to ensure these
facilities are assessed fairly.
Measures Facility A Facility B
1
Population
characteristics
City X: Mostly people
with high economic
status and those with
more than high school
education
City Y: Mostly people
with low economic
status, minorities,
high school or less
education
2 Population served All ages
Mostly older adults
and people with
disabilities and
chronic conditions
3
Staff to patient
ratio
1:4 1:8
4
Physician and
nurses continuing
education
Required Required
5 Average number of
hours staff work
per week
50 hours 60 hours
Reflect in ePortfolio
Submissions
No submissions yet. Drag and drop to upload your assignment below.
Drop files here, or click below!
Upload Choose Existing
You can upload files up to a maximum of 1 GB.
Length: 8-10 slides (excluding title slide and references slide)
References: Include a minimum of 3-5 peer-reviewed, scholarly resources referenced on a
separate slide at the end of your presentation.
Your assignment should reflect scholarly academic writing, current APA standards,
Record
Week 4
Course Home Content Dropbox Grades Bookshelf More
Interpreting Performance Improvement Measures
and Benchmarking
As a healthcare administrator/manager, it is in your best
interest to help the facility you serve to move in the
direction charted in the National Quality Strategy (Joshi et
al., 2014). Organizations that fail to meet set standards are
known to face sanctions and sometimes required to close
shop. In consideration of this, you will want to ensure that
the facility you manage is adopting a culture of quality that
puts its patients at the center of healthcare delivery. You will
want to do this by making sure that your facility provides
quality patient care, while also keeping the facility’s
bottom-line healthy.
To ensure you are moving in the right direction, you must
measure and monitor key qual.
Take a company and build a unique solution not currently offered. Bu.docxperryk1
Take a company and build a unique solution not currently offered. Build a
Lean Business Model Canvas.jpg
and present your idea using all 5 frameworks below:
1.Start with Why (by Simon Sinek)
2.Blue Ocean Strategy(by Chan Kim & Renee Mauborgne)
3.Being re"Markable"
4.The Tipping Point (by Malcolm Gladwell)
5.Story Brand (by Donald Miller)
.
Tackling a Crisis Head-onThis week, we will be starting our .docxperryk1
Tackling a Crisis Head-on
This week, we will be starting our work on Assignment 2. Go to
The Wall Street Journal
menu item and find an article about a crisis that occurred at a specific organization in the last year.
Considering the course materials for this week, answer the following:
Describe the crisis faced by the organization.
What communication tactics did the organization use to address its crisis? Refer to Jack and Warren's guidance for dealing with crises.
To what extent, if any, was the organization's crisis communication plan effective?
If you were a senior leader in the organization, would you have responded differently? Why or why not?
This week and next, continue to research this specific crisis so that you can better prepare for Assignment 2.
Post your initial response by Wednesday, midnight of your time zone, and reply to at least 2 of your classmates' initial posts by Sunday, midnight of your time zone.
1st response
The Bank of America Earnings Crisis
In 2020, many businesses experienced notable challenges due to the outbreak of the coronavirus. The Bank of America was no exception based on its reports of firm earnings in 2020. According to Eisen (2021), many large financial organizations in the United States withstood the recession due to COVID-19. However, the author explains that the banks have not been fully protected against the minimal rates brought about by the pandemic. For Bank of America, the outcomes of the COVID-19 outbreak have been felt in many ways, particularly the reduction of earnings by 22%. Additionally, lenders have also experienced significant challenges based on low-interest rates, and Bank of America is among them. Since the financial institution gains earnings on the difference between their lending payments and what they pay to depositors, the bank's interest rates downfall. The earnings crisis also affected the firm's operations in the last quarter of 2020 even though it made considerable profits.
Communication Tactics and Addressing the Crisis
Handling a crisis in organizations presents notable problems for managers and leaders that do not understand the proper ways of solving a crisis. Warren Buffet explains that there are four significant steps a leader can take to address a crisis. First, getting the crisis right and understanding why it happens and what can stop it will help address the crisis. The Bank of America leaders understood that the company needs to introduce measures that will increase the earnings. Secondly, according to Buffet, responding to the crisis fast is also a core step in managing a crisis. The Bank of America did not wait until the last quarter of 2020 to react to the earnings crisis. Rather, they resorted to ensuring the loan demands are stabilized by business consumers and focused more on investment activities (Eisen, 2021). The third and fourth steps based on Warren's advice involve getting the crisis out by dealing with it and getting over with. Th.
take a look at the latest Presidential Order that relates to str.docxperryk1
take a look at the latest Presidential Order that relates to strengthening cybersecurity that relates to critical infrastructure:
https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-executive-order-strengthening-cybersecurity-federal-networks-critical-infrastructure/
Let’s look at a real-world scenario and how the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) plays into it. In the scenario, the United States will be hit by a large-scale, coordinated cyber attack organized by China. These attacks debilitate the functioning of government agencies, parts of the critical infrastructure, and commercial ventures. The IT infrastructure of several agencies are paralyzed, the electric grid in most of the country is shut down, telephone traffic is seriously limited and satellite communications are down (limiting the Department of Defense’s [DOD’s] ability to communicate with commands overseas). International commerce and financial institutions are also severely hit. Please explain how DHS should handle this situation.
please explain how DHS should handle the situation described in the preceding paragraph.
.
Take a look at the sculptures by Giacometti and Moore in your te.docxperryk1
Take a look at the sculptures by Giacometti and Moore in your text. Both pieces are good examples of the relationship between form, content, and subject matter. How do you feel the form of each sculpture expresses the content? What specific characteristics give us clues and communicate meaning?
Select a third work of art from the text and discuss how the form and content relate. Identify at least five visual elements and/or principles of design in your analysis of the third piece.
.
Table of ContentsLOCAL PEOPLE PERCEPTION TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE TOU.docxperryk1
Table of Contents
LOCAL PEOPLE PERCEPTION TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN DENMARK1
Declaration:2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT2
CHAPTER:15
Introduction5
1.1 Background of the study6
1.2 Problem Statement:7
1.3 Research Questions:8
1.4 Research Objectives:8
1.5 Thesis Structure8
CHAPTER:29
Literature review9
2.1 Attitudes of local people towards Sustainable tourism9
2.2 Practices of Sustainable tourism10
2.3 Sustainable tourism development.12
2.4 Involvement of people in Sustainability.14
2.5 Theoretical Framework.15
3.1 Introduction17
3.2 Research Design17
3.3 Sampling method18
3.4 Data collection18
3.5 Measurements and Variables18
3.6 Data analysis19
CHAPTER:1Introduction
Sustainable tourism is a form of tourism, which requires a tourist to respect the local culture, environment, preserving cultural heritage, and supporting local economies by purchasing local products which also benefits the people of that country. Sustainable tourism is a form of development, which is Social development, Economic development and Nature protection. According to the World Tourism Organization, Sustainable tourism is “Tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment, and host communities” UNWTO (2013). Denmark is more concerned about sustainable environment, for instance the Government is aiming at Copenhagen becoming the world’s first carbon-neutral capital by 2025. Government have put high taxation on vehicles, cars so Danes have to think twice before buying or using them. This could be the strategy of the nation. As they are on the way to gain something remarkable, they also have some challenges. The tourism industry has a million of turnover in Danish economy and Danish government puts a high effort in order to make it more sustainable. The big topic could be how the tourist react on it? All the government efforts could be result less if the customer and the business does not act smart. To the Danes, sustainability is a holistic approach that includes renewable energy, water management, waste recycling and green transportation including bicycle culture. Most of the local restaurants use re-usable things during their service also, practices waste deposable for take away.
Tourism is the best way to experience the culture however, damage and waste can occur due to inappropriate behavior of tourists. According to the Denmark statics (2019), every year tourist spends around 128 billion DKK in Denmark. Denmark is very responsible towards environment and most of the hotels are practicing Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). For example, Scandic Kødbyen is one of the hotels practicing sustainability, first to implement CSR. It plays a significant support in sustainable tourism business, which includes hotel, restaurant and the service provided sectors. Visit Copenhagen states that 70% of hotels hold an official eco-certification and also known as the hap.
Table of Contents Title PageWELCOMETHE VAJRA.docxperryk1
Table of Contents
Title Page
WELCOME
THE VAJRACCHEDIKA PRAJÑAPARAMITA SUTRA
COMMENTARIES
PART ONE - THE DIALECTICS OF
PRAJÑAPARAMITA
Chapter 1 - THE SETTING
Chapter 2 - SUBHUTI’S QUESTION
Chapter 3 - THE FIRST FLASH OF LIGHTNING
Chapter 4 - THE GREATEST GIFT
Chapter 5 - SIGNLESSNESS
PART TWO - THE LANGUAGE OF
NONATTACHMENT
Chapter 6 - A ROSE IS NOT A ROSE
Chapter 7 - ENTERING THE OCEAN OF REALITY
Chapter 8 - NONATTACHMENT
PART THREE - THE ANSWER IS IN
THE QUESTION
Chapter 9 - DWELLING IN PEACE
Chapter 10 - CREATING A FORMLESS PURE
LAND
Chapter 11 - THE SAND IN THE GANGES
Chapter 12 - EVERY LAND IS A HOLY LAND
Chapter 13 - THE DIAMOND THAT CUTS
THROUGH ILLUSION
Chapter 14 - ABIDING IN NON-ABIDING
Chapter 15 - GREAT DETERMINATION
Chapter 16 - THE LAST EPOCH
Chapter 17 - THE ANSWER IS IN THE QUESTION
PART FOUR - MOUNTAINS AND
RIVERS ARE OUR OWN BODY
Chapter 18 - REALITY IS A STEADILY FLOWING
STREAM
Chapter 19 - GREAT HAPPINESS
Chapter 20 - THIRTY-TWO MARKS
Chapter 21 - INSIGHT-LIFE
Chapter 22 - THE SUNFLOWER
Chapter 23 - THE MOON IS JUST THE MOON
Chapter 24 - THE MOST VIRTUOUS ACT
Chapter 25 - ORGANIC LOVE
Chapter 26 - A BASKET FILLED WITH WORDS
Chapter 27 - NOT CUT OFF FROM LIFE
Chapter 28 - VIRTUE AND HAPPINESS
Chapter 29 - NEITHER COMING NOR GOING
Chapter 30 - THE INDESCRIBABLE NATURE OF
ALL THINGS
Chapter 31 - TORTOISE HAIR AND RABBIT
HORNS
Chapter 32 - TEACHING THE DHARMA
CONCLUSION
Copyright Page
WELCOME
WELCOME
BROTHERS AND SISTERS, please read The Diamond
That Cuts through Illusion with a serene mind, a mind
free from views. It’s the basic sutra for the practice of
meditation. Late at night, it’s a pleasure to recite the
Diamond Sutra alone, in complete silence. The sutra is
so deep and wonderful. It has its own language. The
first Western scholars who obtained the text thought it
was talking nonsense. Its language seems mysterious,
but when you look deeply, you can understand.
Don’t rush into the commentaries or you may be
unduly influenced by them. Please read the sutra first.
You may see things that no commentator has seen. You
can read as if you were chanting, using your clear body
and mind to be in touch with the words. Try to
understand the sutra from your own experiences and
your own suffering. It is helpful to ask, “Do these
teachings of the Buddha have anything to do with my
daily life?” Abstract ideas can be beautiful, but if they
have nothing to do with our life, of what use are they?
So please ask, “Do the words have anything to do with
eating a meal, drinking tea, cutting wood, or carrying
water?”
The sutra’s full name is The Diamond That Cuts
through Illusion, Vajracchedika Prajñaparamita in
Sanskrit. Vajracchedika means “the diamond that cuts
through afflictions, ignorance, delusion, or illusion.” In
China and Vietnam, people generally call it the Diamond
Sutra, emphasizing the word “diamond,” but, in fact,
the phrase “cutting through” is the most important.
Prajñaparamita means “per.
Take a few minutes to reflect on this course. How has your think.docxperryk1
Take a few minutes to reflect on this course. How has your thinking (e.g., worldview, knowledge, etc.) been challenged from what you thought prior to taking this course? What are your thoughts now on the significance of correctly diagnosing mental health disorders? What are your thoughts on the treatment of psychopathology? In general, what thoughts do you have about psychopathology and its impact on an individual and the family?
.
Taiwan The Tail That Wags DogsMichael McDevittAsia Po.docxperryk1
Taiwan: The Tail That Wags Dogs
Michael McDevitt
Asia Policy, Number 1, January 2006, pp. 69-93 (Article)
Published by National Bureau of Asian Research
DOI: 10.1353/asp.2006.0011
For additional information about this article
Access provided by Florida International University (9 Sep 2013 16:14 GMT)
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asp/summary/v001/1.mcdevitt.html
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asp/summary/v001/1.mcdevitt.html
asia p olicy, number 1 (january 2006 ), 69–93
Michael McDevitt (Rear Admiral, retired) is Vice President and Director
of the Center for Naval Analyses at the CNA Corporation. These views are his
own and do not represent the views of the CNA Corporation. He can be reached
at <[email protected]>.
keywords: taiwan; china; united states; japan; foreign relations
Taiwan: The Tail That Wags Dogs
Michael McDevitt
[ 70 ]
execu tive summary
asia p olicy
This essay explores how Taiwan has been able to seize the political initiative
from China, Japan, and the United States.
main argument
Taiwan has attained this leverage due to the interrelationship of four factors:
• Strategic considerations stemming from Taiwan’s geographic position lead
Tokyo and Washington to prefer the status quo, while leading China to
strive for reunification. China’s increasing military power, however, may
suggest a Chinese intention to change the status quo.
• Shared democratic values and the fact that the “democracy issue” has great-
ly prolonged the timetable for reunification give Taipei political influence
in both Washington and Tokyo.
• China’s constant threats of force actually empower Taipei in its relationship
with Washington, and cause the United States to plan for the worst.
• Taiwan is a litmus test of U.S. credibility as an ally, a condition that in turn
creates a perception on the island that U.S. military backing is uncondi-
tional.
policy implications
• Taipei’s high-risk diplomatic approach carries with it the very real possibil-
ity of miscalculation, which could easily lead to great power conflict.
• The United States would benefit from exploring with Beijing ways in which
to demilitarize the issue of Taiwan independence so that the threat of great
power conflict over Taiwan is greatly moderated.
• Tensions may eventually lessen substantially if Beijing can be encouraged to
substitute political deterrence for military deterrence.
• In order to ensure that the U.S. position in the region would survive a
Taipei-provoked conflict should the United States choose not to become
directly involved, Washington can undertake extensive talks with Japan de-
signed to ensure that Japan does not lose confidence in Washington.
organization of the essay
The first four sections of the essay respectively explore the four factors of the
complex U.S.-Taiwan-Japan-China relationship outlined above:
Geostrategic Issues and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
TABLE 1-1 Milestones of Medicine and Medical Education 1700–2015 ■.docxperryk1
TABLE 1-1 Milestones of Medicine and Medical Education 1700–2015 ■ 1700s: Training and apprenticeship under one physician was common until hospitals were founded in the mid-1700s. In 1765, the first medical school was established at the University of Pennsylvania. ■ 1800s: Medical training was provided through internships with existing physicians who often were poorly trained themselves. In the United States, there were only four medical schools, which graduated only a handful of students. There was no formal tuition with no mandatory testing. ■ 1847: The AMA was established as a membership organization for physicians to protect the interests of its members. It did not become powerful until the 1900s when it organized its physician members by county and state medical societies. The AMA wanted to ensure these local societies were protecting physicians’ financial well-being. It also began to focus on standardizing medical education. ■ 1900s–1930s: The medical profession was represented by general or family practitioners who operated in solo practices. A small percentage of physicians were women. Total expenditures for medical care were less than 4% of the gross domestic product. ■ 1904: The AMA created the Council on Medical Education to establish standards for medical education. ■ 1910: Formal medical education was attributed to Abraham Flexner, who wrote an evaluation of medical schools in the United States and Canada indicating many schools were substandard. The Flexner Report led to standardized admissions testing for students called the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), which is still used as part of the admissions process today. ■ 1930s: The healthcare industry was dominated by male physicians and hospitals. Relationships between patients and physicians were sacred. Payments for physician care were personal. ■ 1940s–1960s: When group health insurance was offered, the relationship between patient and physician changed because of third-party payers (insurance). In the 1950s, federal grants supported medical school operations and teaching hospitals. In the 1960s, the Regional Medical Programs provided research grants and emphasized service innovation and provider networking. As a result of the Medicare and Medicaid enactment in 1965, the responsibilities of teaching faculty also included clinical responsibilities. ■ 1970s–1990s: Patient care dollars surpassed research dollars as the largest source of medical school funding. During the 1980s, third-party payers reimbursed academic medical centers with no restrictions. In the 1990s with the advent of managed care, reimbursement was restricted. ■ 2014: According to the 2014 Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMAC) annual survey, over 70% of medical schools have or will be implementing policies and programs to encourage primary care specialties for medical school students. TABLE 1-2 Milestones of the Hospital and Healthcare Systems 1820–2015 ■ 1820s: Almshouses or poorhouses, the pr.
Tackling wicked problems A public policy perspective Ple.docxperryk1
Tackling wicked problems : A
public policy perspective
Please note - this is an archived publication.
Commissioner’s foreword
The Australian Public Service (APS) is increasingly being tasked with solving very
complex policy problems. Some of these policy issues are so complex they have
been called ‘wicked’ problems. The term ‘wicked’ in this context is used, not in the
sense of evil, but rather as an issue highly resistant to resolution.
Successfully solving or at least managing these wicked policy problems requires
a reassessment of some of the traditional ways of working and solving problems
in the APS. They challenge our governance structures, our skills base and our
organisational capacity.
It is important, as a first step, that wicked problems be recognised as such.
Successfully tackling wicked problems requires a broad recognition and
understanding, including from governments and Ministers, that there are no quick
fixes and simple solutions.
Tackling wicked problems is an evolving art. They require thinking that is capable
of grasping the big picture, including the interrelationships among the full range of
causal factors underlying them. They often require broader, more collaborative
and innovative approaches. This may result in the occasional failure or need for
policy change or adjustment.
Wicked problems highlight the fundamental importance of the APS building on the
progress that has been made with working across organisational boundaries both
within and outside the APS. The APS needs to continue to focus on effectively
engaging stakeholders and citizens in understanding the relevant issues and in
involving them in identifying possible solutions.
The purpose of this publication is more to stimulate debate around what is
needed for the successful tackling of wicked problems than to provide all the
answers. Such a debate is a necessary precursor to reassessing our current
systems, frameworks and ways of working to ensure they are capable of
responding to the complex issues facing the APS.
I hope that this publication will encourage public service managers to reflect on
these issues, and to look for ways to improve the capacity of the APS to deal
effectively with the complex policy problems confronting us.
Lynelle Briggs
Australian Public Service Commissioner
1. Introduction
Many of the most pressing policy challenges for the APS involve dealing with very
complex problems. These problems share a range of characteristics—they go
beyond the capacity of any one organisation to understand and respond to, and
there is often disagreement about the causes of the problems and the best way to
tackle them. These complex policy problems are sometimes called ‘wicked’
problems.
Usually, part of the solution to wicked problems involves changing the behaviour
of groups of citizens or all citizens. Other key ingredients in solving or at least
managing complex policy problems include successfu.
Tahira Longus Week 2 Discussion PostThe Public Administration.docxperryk1
Tahira Longus Week 2 Discussion Post:
The Public Administrations may entrust the development of collective bargaining activities to bodies created by them, of a strictly technical nature, which will hold their representation in collective bargaining before the corresponding political instructions and without prejudice to the ratification of the agreements reached by the bodies. Government or administrative with competence for it. In addition, public bargaining involves the process of resolving labor-management conflicts. It alsoensuresboth the employee and the employer fair treatment during the negotiation process. The Tables will be validly constituted when, in addition to the representation of the corresponding Administration, and without prejudice to the right of all legitimate trade union organizations to participate in them in proportion to their representatives, such union organizations represent, at least, the absolute majority of the members of the unitary representative bodies in the area in question.
www.ilo.org ›
The Public Administrations may entrust the development of collective bargaining activities to bodies created by them, of a strictly technical nature, which will hold their representation in collective bargaining before the corresponding political instructions and without prejudice to the ratification of the agreements reached by the bodies. Government or administrative with competence for it. In addition, public bargaining involves the process of resolving labor-management conflicts. It also assures both the employee and the employer fair treatment during the negotiation process. The Tables will be validly constituted when, in addition to the representation of the corresponding Administration, and without prejudice to the right of all legitimate trade union organizations to participate in them in proportion to their representatives, such union organizations represent, at least, the absolute majority of the members of the unitary representative bodies in the area in question.
Tara St Laurent Post
.
Tabular and Graphical PresentationsStatistics (exercises).docxperryk1
Tabular and Graphical Presentations
Statistics (exercises)
Aleksandra Pawłowska
April 7, 2020
Glossary (part 1)
Categorical data Labels or names used to identify categories of like items.
Quantitative data Numerical values that indicate how much or how many.
Frequency distribution A tabular summary of data showing the number (fre-
quency) of data values in each of several nonoverlapping classes.
Relative frequency distribution A tabular summary of data showing the fraction
or proportion of data values in each of several nonoverlapping classes.
Percent frequency distribution A tabular summary of data showing the percent-
age of data values in each of several nonoverlapping classes.
Bar chart A graphical device for depicting qualitative data that have been sum-
marized in a frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequency distribution.
Pie chart A graphical device for presenting data summaries based on subdivision
of a circle into sectors that correspond to the relative frequency for each class.
Dot plot A graphical device that summarizes data by the number of dots above
each data value on the horizontal axis.
Aleksandra Pawłowska Tabular and Graphical Presentations
Glossary (part 2)
Histogram A graphical presentation of a frequency distribution, relative frequency
distribution, or percent frequency distribution of quantitative data constructed
by placing the class intervals on the horizontal axis and the frequencies, relative
frequencies, or percent frequencies on the vertical axis.
Cumulative frequency distribution A tabular summary of quantitative data show-
ing the number of data values that are less than or equal to the upper class limit
of each class.
Cumulative relative frequency distribution A tabular summary of quantitative
data showing the fraction or proportion of data values that are less than or equal
to the upper class limit of each class.
Cumulative percent frequency distribution A tabular summary of quantitative
data showing the percentage of data values that are less than or equal to the
upper class limit of each class.
Ogive A graph of a cumulative distribution.
Scatter diagram A graphical presentation of the relationship between two quan-
titative variables. One variable is shown on the horizontal axis and the other
variable is shown on the vertical axis.
Trendline A line that provides an approximation of the relationship between two
variables.
Aleksandra Pawłowska Tabular and Graphical Presentations
Useful tips (part 1)
1 Often the number of classes in a frequency distribution is the same as the
number of categories found in the data. Most statisticians recommend
that classes with smaller frequencies be grouped into an aggregate class
called „other”. Classes with frequencies of 5% or less would most often be
treated in this fashion.
2 The sum of the frequencies in any frequency distribution always equals
the number of observations. The sum of the relative frequencies in any
relative frequency distribution.
Table 4-5 CSFs for ERP ImplementationCritical Success Fact.docxperryk1
Table 4-5 CSFs for ERP Implementation
Critical Success Factors
Description
Management Support
Top management advocacy, provision of adequate resources, and commitment to project
Release of Full-Time Subject Matter Experts (SME)
Release full time on to the project of relevant business experts who provide assistance to the project
Empowered Decision Makers
The members of the project team(s) must be empowered to make quick decisions
Deliverable Dates
At planning stage, set realistic milestones and end date
Champion
Advocate for system who is unswerving in promoting the benefits of the new system
Vanilla ERP
Minimal customization and uncomplicated option selection
Smaller Scope
Fewer modules and less functionality implemented, smaller user group, and fewer site(s)
Definition of Scope and Goals
The steering committee determines the scope and objectives of the project in advance and then adheres to it
Balanced Team
Right mix of business analysts, technical experts, and users from within the implementation company and consultants from external companies
Commitment to Change
Perseverance and determination in the face of inevitable problems with implementation
Question 11 pts
The melody of a piece of music is
the harmony
the rhythm
the tune
the chords
Flag this Question
Question 21 pts
Chords are an element of
melody
rhythm
all of the above
harmony
Flag this Question
Question 31 pts
The distance between pitches is called
a space
an interval
a beat
all of the above
Flag this Question
Question 41 pts
Rhythmic organization in pre-Conquest Native American music was
divisive
in duple meter
in triple meter
additive
Flag this Question
Question 51 pts
Pan-Indian music often uses:
all of the above
the Navajo language
vocables
English
Flag this Question
Question 61 pts
Pre-conquest Native American musicians were primarily valued for their expertise in spiritual matters.
True
False
Flag this Question
Question 71 pts
Traditional Native American melodies have a wide melodic range
True
False
Flag this Question
Question 81 pts
Early Native American music features intervals that are:
rhythmically longer
rhythmically shorter
farther apart than what we have in the western system
closer together than what we have in the western system
Flag this Question
Question 91 pts
In the early New England colonies folk songs were:
derived from Irish melodies
derived from English melodies
all of the above
usually sung without accompaniment
Flag this Question
Question 101 pts
Early Anglo - American folks songs were:
often in polymeters
often in triple meter
often in duple meter
often in free meter
Flag this Question
Question 111 pts
Of the following, which is not a form of early Anglo-American folk songs?
ballads
lyric songs
work songs
jubilees
Flag this Question
Question 121 pts
Of the following which instrument was not brought to the Americas by European colonists?
clavichord
recorder
viol
banjo
Flag this Question
Quest.
TableOfContentsTable of contents with hyperlinks for this document.docxperryk1
TableOfContentsTable of contents with hyperlinks for this documentExcluding standard worksheets that come with the original dataSheet namePurposeNotesOnDataPrep!A1Tips and tricks for students in doing data analysis in ExcelSalaryPivotTable!A1Using a histogram of salary to compare other variables in terms of chunks of salaryDescriptiveStatsForFrequency!A1Example of producing descriptive stats for chunks of a numeric variable (grouping, frequency table as 'categories')VariableDescriptiveStatsPHStat!A1Example of descriptive stats produced by PHStat and then edited, items removed that are not neededCorrelations!A1Instructor reference for how all variables are inter-relatedRegressionAge!A1Example of regression output highighting output to pay attention toSPSSRegressionAllEnter!A1Instructor reference - regressing salary on all independent variables to discern stongest, independent predictorsPivotTableCreatePercentPolygon!A1Example of comparing distributions between two categories with different number of cases or different scales, i.e., version of percent polygonAnalysis resultsGender univariate descriptive statisticsGenderAnalysis!A1Gender/Salary; Gender/Job Grade Classification analysis; Gender/other independent variables Salary histogram, distributionCompare gender/salary descriptive statisticsGenderCompareDescriptives!A1Comparison Table gender descriptive statistics in terms of all variables. This might be something worth doing.EthnicitySalaryAnalysis!A1Ethnicity/Salary analysisOptionalEthnicitySalaryAnalysis!A1Optional ethnicity/salary analysis - distribution of ethnicity over chunks of salary, percent polygonEthnicityJGClassAnalysis!A1Ethnicity/Job Grade Classification analysisAgeSalaryAnalysis!A1Age/Salary analysisAgeJobGradeClassAnalysis!A1Age/Job grade classification analysisYearsWorkedSalaryAnalysis!A1Years worked/Salary analysisYears worked/Job grade classification analysisRelationship between endogenous variablesJob grade classification/Salary analysisRelationship between independent variablesPercentPolygonGenderYearsWorked!A1Compare years worked distribution by gender; Example of comparing distributions between two categories with different number of cases or different scales, i.e., version of percent polygon Standard sheets that come with the dataVariable INFO'!A1Information on variablesHuman Resources DATA'!A1DataCross-Class-Table'!A1Summary Table'!A1Histogram!A1% Polygons 2 Groups'!A1Freq. & % Distribution'!A1
Variable INFOTableOfContents!A1The data are a random sample of 120 responses to a survey conducted by the VP of Human Resources at a large company.Source:INFO 501 class at Montclair State UniversityVariablesSalaryin thousands of dollars (K)Age in years YrsWorkin years JGClassjob-grade classification of 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 (lowest skill job to highest skill job)Ethnicity1=Minority0=Not MinorityGender(Male, Female)Named ranges created in this worksheet - use these names to address the data more quickly then manually selecting dat.
Tajfel and Turner (in chapter two of our reader) give us the followi.docxperryk1
Tajfel and Turner (in chapter two of our reader) give us the following definition of Social Identity Theory: "SIT proposes that individuals make sense of their social environment by categorizing themselves and others into groups that can be contrasted with others" (Oksanen et al., 2014). SIT brings order to chaos, you might say, in that individuals define themselves as being different from everyone else.
Considering what we have read about the perpetrators of group violence, how do you suppose that it is that people make the leap from their own social identity to group violence? What social and psychological mechanisms are at work that would go from simple categorization to overt violence?
.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
"Protectable subject matters, Protection in biotechnology, Protection of othe...
T H E B I R T H O F T H E I M A G I N A T I O N.docx
1. T H E
B I R T H
O F T H E
I M A G I N A T I O N
a
O n e d a y i n t h e a u t u m n o f 1879 a S p an ish n o b
le m an an d his d au g h te r set o u t on a
little ad v en tu re. T h e y w ere g o in g to ex p lo re a cave n
o t far fro m the fam ily estate at
P u en te S an M iguel, in th e C a n ta b ria reg io n o f n o
rth e rn Spain. T h e n o b le m a n ’s nam e
was M arcelin o Sanz de S au tu o la, an d his d au g h te r - n
o t yet in h er teen s - was called
M a ria . T o g eth er they m ad e fo r the hillside o f A ltam
ira, w hich h ad lately b een re p o rte d
as a site o f p reh isto ric o ccu p atio n . T o u se th e language
o f th e tim e, A ltam ira was th e so rt
o f place w here troglodytes o r ‘p eo p le b efo re A d a m ’ w
ere th o u g h t to have sheltered.
As a keen a m ate u r archaeologist, de S au tu o la h a d high h
2. o p es o f w h at h e m ig h t find
at A ltam ira. T h e b o n es o f stran g e anim als m ig h t be
scattered aro u n d ; p e rh a p s traces o f
fires kindled lo n g ago. W ith an y luck, an d close
investigation o f th e cave floor, som e
ru d im e n ta ry tools o r im p lem e n ts m ig h t also b e
retrieved.
D e S au tu o la was n o t m erely h u n tin g fo r curiosities. W
h e n it cam e to p u b lish in g
his discoveries a t A ltam ira, h e gravely n o te d th a t his u
ltim ate m otive fo r m aking the
ex p ed itio n w ith M a ria was to ‘te a r away th e th ick veil
th a t separates us fro m th e origins
an d cu sto m s o f th e an cien t in h a b ita n ts o f th ese m o
u n ta in s’. O n ce h e an d M a ria were
inside the cave, he c ro u c h ed d o w n an d b eg an to exam
ine th e g ro u n d by la n tern light.
It w as cool a n d d am p in th e cave, b u t spacious too. W
hile h er fath e r w as poking an d
6 A detail o f th e cave paintings at Altamira, Spain, c. 11,000
BC. which Maria and Marcelino d e Sautuola
discovered by chance.
3. TH E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N
s c ra p in g a t th e floor, M a ria w a n d e re d o f f to d o
so m e ex p lo rin g o f h e r ow n. It w as n o t
lo n g b e fo re th e d ark n e ss o f A lta m ira e c h o e d w
ith a c h ild ’s w o n d ro u s cry.
‘L o o k , P a p a - p a in tin g s o f o x en !’
So a y o u n g girl w as th e firs t m o d e rn h u m a n to set
eyes u p o n th e ‘g allery ’ o f
p re h is to ric p a in tin g s fo r w h ic h A lta m ira w o u ld
b e c o m e re n o w n e d (Fig. 6).
B ein g sm all, M a ria h a d a b e tte r view o f th e cav e’s
low ceiling th a n h e r father.
H o w ev er, h e r re c o g n itio n o f th e an im als w h o se
im ag es w ere ra n g e d o v er A lta m ira ’s
n a tu ra l v au lt was n o t q u ite a c c u ra te . T h e s e w ere
a u ro c h s - a ty p e o f b is o n th a t h a d b e e n
e x tin c t fo r th o u sa n d s o f years. H e rd s o f th e m w
ere d e p ic te d - sta n d in g , g razin g , ru n n in g ,
sleeping. A n d a ro u n d th e se a u ro c h s th e re w ere o
th e r fo u r-le g g e d b ea sts: h o rs e s , ibexes,
b o a r. G a z in g u p a t w h a t his d a u g h te r h a d fo u n
d , d e S a u tu o la w as a lm o s t sp eech less
w ith e x c ite m e n t. H e k n ew in stin ctiv ely th a t th is a
4. r t w as v e ry old in d e e d ; b u t it w as m o re
th a n in s tin c t th a t to ld h im so. T h e cave w as litte re d
w ith d e b ris b e lo n g in g to w h a t w o u ld
b e c o m e k n o w n as th e S to n e A g e - o r, in a rc h
aeo lo g ica l p a rla n c e , th e U p p e r P alaeo lith ic
p e r io d ( 3 5 ,0 0 0 -1 0 ,0 0 0 years ago). M o reo v e r, d e
S au tu o la co u ld see sim ilarities b etw een
th e b iso n d ep icted h e re a t A lta m ira a n d so m e b o
n e c a rv in g s o f a n im als lately d isc o v ered
in caves in F ra n ce .
T h e g e n tle m a n -s c h o la r lo st n o tim e in c o m m u n
ic a tin g th e new s. I t c re a te d a
se n satio n , u n d e r s ta n d a b le even to th is day, a lth o u
g h , fo r rea so n s o f p re s e rv a tio n , visitors
a re n o w a d m itte d o n ly to a re p lica o f th e cave. G a
z in g o v er A lta m ira ’s ro ck y su rfaces,
th e v iew er so o n a p p re c ia te s th a t th e w o rd ‘p a in
tin g ’ is in a d e q u a te h ere . T h e u n e v e n
c o n to u rs o f th e ro ck h av e b e e n in g e n io u sly in c
o rp o r a te d to give th e a n im als a bulky,
a lm o s t th re e -d im e n sio n a l p re se n c e . B ig b o v in e
sh o u ld e rs lo o m u p in th e h alf-lig h t: a n d ,
w hile th e e x a c t species o f b is o n d e p ic te d is n o lo
n g e r to b e seen, w e c a n n o t fail to be
5. s tru c k b y th e q u ality o f close o b s e rv a tio n o n
display. H o w th e an im als s to o d w hile at
p a s tu re , h o w th e y co llap sed w h e n r e c u m b e n t o
r w o u n d e d - th e A lta m ira d e p ic tio n s are,
as w e s h o u ld say, co n v in cin g . T h e co lo u rs, to o ,
are m e m o rab le : p re d o m in a n tly re d a n d
b lack, b u t w ith sh ad in g s o f fo rm also p ic k e d o u t in
b ro w n , p u r p le , yellow, p in k a n d w hite.
T h e s e s tro n g o rg an ic p ig m e n ts , d e riv e d fro m v
ario u s o x id es a n d c a rb o n s , p la y th e ir
p a r t in g iv in g th e w o rk a p o w erfu lly e a rth y d e p
th a n d su b sta n c e . All in all, it m ig h t b e
c o n c lu d e d th a t th e p a in tin g s h e re are to o g o o d
to b e tru e .
S ad ly fo r de S a u tu o la , m a n y o f his c o n te m p o ra
rie s th o u g h t ju s t th a t. A fte r an
initial a c co lad e fro m th e p re ss, ro y al visits to th e
cave a n d so o n , d o u b ts r e g a rd in g th e
T H E BIRTH O F THE IM A G IN A T IO N
a u th en ticity o f th e a r t a t A ltam ira b eg a n to b e
voiced. N o th in g c o m p a ra b le to th e ir scale
an d p icto rial delicacy h a d b e e n fo u n d a t p reh isto ric
6. sites th e n k n o w n to archaeological
co n n o isseu rs. O n e p re m a tu re e x p lan a tio n o f A
ltam ira su g g ested th a t th e p ain tin g s
h ad b ee n d o n e d u rin g th e R o m a n o c c u p a tio n o
f th e Ib erian p en in su la. W ith in a y ear o f
d e S a u tu o la ’s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f th e fin d , how
ever, m o re p o iso n o u s ru m o u rs w ere
circulating. A n a rtis t w as seen g o in g in to th e cave (de S
au tu o la h ad co m m issio n ed him
to m ake copies o f th e ceiling): w o rd w e n t r o u n d th a t
h e was th e o n e w h o h ad p ain ted
it in th e first place. A t h o m e an d a b ro a d , d e S au tu o
la fo u n d h im self m o c k ed as a d u p e ,
o r s u sp e c te d o f p e rp e tra tin g a hoax. H e died in
1888, a d eeply d isa p p o in te d a n d widely
disbelieved m an . H is frien d s said h e w as b ro k e n h e a rte
d by th e w hole affair.
Y oung M a ria w ould live to see h e r f a th e r’s h o n o u r
th o ro u g h ly red eem ed . B u t b efo re
we la m e n t th e scepticism th a t b ro u g h t m isery to a p
io n e er ex p lo re r o f p reh isto ric art,
let us a d m it o u r ow n p rim a ry reactio n to w h at we see a
t A ltam ira, a n d a t o th e r g rea t
u n d e r g ro u n d sites su b se q u en tly revealed in S p ain
7. an d so u th e rn F ra n c e - m o st notably
th e caves o f L a sc a u x an d C h au v et. ‘A m az in g ’; ‘in
c re d ib le’; ‘asto n ish in g ’: we rea ch for
th e clichéd lan g u ag e o f ad m iratio n , a n d fo r o nce it d
en o tes a g en u in e m ystery. N o
sam p le o f early h u m a n h an d iw o rk is m o re p e rp le
x in g th a n th e large-scale cave p ain tin g s
o f Palaeolithic E u ro p e . W h a t follows h e re is a n a tte
m p t to m ake sense o f w h at th e im ages
m ig h t m e an , a n d w hy th ey w ere p a in te d on su b te
rra n e a n walls. A p a rtic u la r th e o ry is
p u rs u e d , an d o th e r th e o ries rejected - b u t th ey are
th eo ries all th e sam e. In the en d ,
am a z e m e n t m ay rem a in the p r o p e r resp o n se. W h a
t we can establish fo r ce rtain , how ever,
is th a t th ese p a in tin g s are n o t localized m iracles. A ltam
ira b elongs to a w id er p ro cess o f
h u m a n d ev e lo p m e n t, an d it is all th e m o re exciting
fo r that.
T H E CREATIVE E X P LO S IO N
R a d io c arb o n d atin g o f th e p ig m e n ts u s e d in the
A ltam ira p ain tin g s has established th a t
th e cave in v estig ated b y M a ria a n d M a rc e lin o d e S
au tu o la w as d ec o rate d betw een
8. 13,300 an d 14,900 years a g o .T h is m o re o r less co n firm
s th e n o tio n al an tiq u ity assigned
to the im ages by d e S au tu o la b ac k in 1879. B u t b e y o n
d th e elem en t o f forgivable
s u rp rise , w hy were th e le arn ed c o n te m p o ra rie s o f
de S au tu o la so re lu c ta n t to believe him ?
T h e an sw er is th a t A ltam ira sim p ly d id n o t fit w ith p
revailing scientific a n d p o p u la r
views a b o u t the o rig in an d d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e h u
m a n species. C h arles D arw in m ay have
TH E BIRTH OF THE IM A G IN A T IO N
cau sed theological co n tro v ersy in V icto rian B ritain w
ith his th e o ry o f evolution by
n atu ra l selection - a p ro cess o ften s u m m arize d as ‘th e
survival o f th e fittest’, th o u g h
D arw in h im self d id n o t coin th a t p h ra se - b u t so far
as it co n firm ed stereotypical
W estern attitu d e s to th e p reh isto ric p ast, D a rw in ’s m
o d e l w as w idely accep ted . If
evolution fav o u red th e survival o f th e fittest, a n d h u m
a n k in d w as set o n a n u p w a rd
cu rv e o f p ro g re ss in ad a p tin g to u n d e rs ta n d a n d
9. co n tro l th e w orld, th e n th o se h u m a n s
left b eh in d - especially th o se left b e h in d m a n y th o u
sa n d s o f years ago - m u s t be
co ngenitally b ack w ard , ig n o ra n t a n d clumsy.
A lready in 1651, th e E nglish p h ilo s o p h e r T h o m a s H
o b b es h a d fastidiously
d es crib ed th e ‘ill c o n d itio n ’ o f h u m a n s living in a
pre-civilized ‘state o f n a tu re ’. I t was
a situ atio n , h e d eclared , o f ‘co n tin u al fear, a n d d an g
e r o f violent d eath ; an d th e life o f
m a n solitary, p o o r, nasty, b ru tish a n d s h o r t’. A t th e
tim e w h en th e p ain tin g s at A ltam ira
w ere fo u n d , m o s t p eo p le w ould have im ag in ed th e ty
p ical ‘cav em an ’ as so m e shaggy,
low -brow ed creatu re, his g ro u n d -s c ra p in g knuckles
clam p e d to a k n o tty club. T h is savage
m ig h t have ch a se d b iso n to fill his belly, b u t to re p re
se n t th e anim al in delicate profile,
w ith careful, sensitive h u es - su c h fine aesth etic cap acity
w as surely b ey o n d belief?
S o w en t th e logic o f o rth o d o x o p in io n . H ow ever,
even th e m o s t ten acio u s
u p h o ld e rs o f this view w ere fo rc ed to rec o n sid er as
fu rth e r p ain te d caves cam e to light,
10. especially in F ra n ce . In 1901, fo r ex am p le, tw o m a jo r
sites n e a r L es Eyzies in th e
P érig o rd reg io n - L es C o m b arelles a n d F o n t-d e -G
a u m e - w ere c o n firm e d as b o n a fide.
T h e follow ing year, a m ajo r sh ift in attitu d es w as
signalled w h en E m ile C a rtailh ac , one
o f th e F re n c h e x p e rts w ho h ad dism issed A ltam ira as
a p ran k , p u b lish ed a p en iten tial
essay, a c ce p tin g th a t his d o u b ts h a d b ee n in erro r:
th e p ain tin g s at A ltam ira, a n d oth ers
like th e m , really d id b elo n g to ‘th e d aw n o f tim e ’.
In th e su m m e r o f 1902, C a rtailh ac
jo in ed o th e r delegates fro m a scientific co n fe re n ce a t
M o n ta u b a n in m ak in g a to u r to
in sp e ct th e several p a in te d caves in th e area. A co n sen
su s w as declared: a r t in d eed
existed in p reh isto ry , a n d th e science o f u n d e rs ta n d
in g it h a d only ju st beg u n .
D iscoveries o f f u rth e r caves p ro liferate d th ro u g h o u t
th e tw en tieth century. F ra n ce
yielded n o t only exam ples o f p ain te d surfaces, b u t also
relief figures, s u c h as th e ‘frieze’
o f anim als b ro u g h t to light in 1909 a t C a p B lanc, again
n e a r L es E yzies, a n d th e tw o
11. b iso n m o u ld e d in clay a t th e en d o f th e d ee p cave a
tT u c d ’A u d o u b e rt in th e Pyrenees.
M o s t stories o f m o d e rn discovery c o n ta in a ratio n o f
d ram a. A p p ro p riately ,
p e rh a p s , it w as w hile search in g fo r a lo st d o g th a t
several schoolboys cam e across th e
THE BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
sp le n d id m e n a g e rie p a in te d w ith in th e cave a t L
a sc a u x , n e a r M o n tig n a c , in 1940 (Fig. 7).
A n d w hile th e fin d in g (in 1994) o f ev e n m o re rem a
rk a b le an im al scen es in F ra n c e ’s
A rd é c h e G o rg e c a m e a b o u t fro m d e lib e ra te u n
d e r g r o u n d e x p lo ra tio n , th e s u b se q u e n t
d isp u te over o w n ersh ip o f this site - n a m e d C h a u v
e t C ave a fte r th e p o th o lin g e n th u sia st
w h o first flash ed a to rc h b e a m o ver it - is s o m e th in
g o f a legal so a p o p era.
A p a ir o f rh in o c e ro s e s lo ck h o rn s fo r a fight; a n a
tu ra l ev e n t re c o rd e d w ith swift,
c o n fid e n t b ru sh stro k e s. A set o f feline p ro files o v
erlap, as if casually an tic ip a tin g the
d ra u g h ts m a n ’s ru les o f d e p th a n d p e rs p e c tiv e
12. by m a n y m illen n ia (Fig. 8). A sto n ish in g ?
In d ee d . B u t n o t ab so lu te ly in c re d ib le - b ec au s e
th e p ain tin g s o f C h a u v e t C av e, firm ly
d a te d to o v er 3 0 ,0 0 0 years ago, p ro v id e m erely th e
m o s t sp e c ta c u la r in d ic a to rs to d ate
o f w h a t so m e arc h aeo lo g ists re fe r to as a g en e ral ‘C
rea tiv e E x p lo sio n ’ o c c u rrin g in th e
U p p e r P alaeo lith ic p e rio d (c. 4 0 ,0 0 0 -1 0 ,0 0 0 y
ears a g o ) .T h e p h e n o m e n o n is n o t
co n fin e d e ith e r to F ra n c e o r to c o n tin e n ta l E u ro
p e . E ssentially, it m ark s th e a sc e n d a n c y
o f a p a rtic u la r biological sp ecies, H om o sapiens, th e ‘k
n o w in g h u m a n ’ ty p e th a t has co m e
to d o m in a te th e E a r th ’s surface.
A s u m m a ry o f th e b a c k g ro u n d to this arriv al o f
an a to m ica lly m o d e rn h u m a n s m ay
be fo u n d in a se p arate sectio n o f this b o o k (see p ag e
14). H ere, it is e n o u g h to o b serv e
th a t p ain tin g s o n cave walls b elo n g to a catalo g u e o f
telltale relics left by the in g en io u s an d
creative H om o sapiens c. 4 0 ,0 0 0 -3 0 ,0 0 0 years ago. A m
o n g th e se relics are th e following:
1 F lin t to o ls, p r o d u c e d in su c h a w ay as to b e ex q u
isitely sy m m etric al. S u ch
13. s y m m e try m a y h ave assisted th e ir fu n c tio n (if, fo r
ex a m p le , axes w ere th ro w n
as m issiles); o th e rw ise it exists to in v e st a fu n ctio n al o
b je ct w ith a e sth e tic value.
2 P e rfo ra te d te e th a n d shells, co llec te d fo r th e sake
o f b o d ily o rn a m e n t. Item s o f
jewellery, s u c h as th e n eck lace o f shells f o u n d at M a
n d u M a n d u in W estern
A u stralia, a re su re signs o f p e rso n a l e m b ellish m e n
t; p o ssib ly also in d ic a to rs o f
social status.
3 D e p o s itio n s o f fo o d a n d gifts alo n g w ith b u ria l
o f th e d ea d . E x cav ated b u rials
at th e C ro - M a g n o n sh e lte r n e a r L es E yzies a n d a
t th e site o f D o ln i-V esto n ice in
th e C z ec h R e p u b lic m ay n o t q u alify s tru c tu ra lly
as to m b s , b u t th e p re se n c e o f
grave g o o d s is suggestive o f ritu a l, a n d so m e c o n c e
p t o f a n afterlife.
4 S c ra tc h in g s o n b o n e a n d a n tle r th a t seem in te n
tio n a l a n d o rd e re d . Several
ex a m p le s o f su c h m a rk in g s fro m th e site o f Z h o u
k o u d ia n , n e a r B eijing in C h in a ,
14. 7 (to p ) Detail o f th e ‘Salon o f t h e Bulls’ a t Lascaux, n
e a r Montignac, France, c. 18,000 bc.
8 (above) T h e m asterfully d e p ic te d feline faces in t h e l
i o n Panel’ o f C h a u v e t C ave, France, c. 3 2 -3 0 ,0 0 0
bc.
THE BIRTH O F THE IM A G IN A T IO N
rem a in o p e n to in te rp re ta tio n , w hile an in g en io u s
case has b e e n m a d e fo r read in g
n o tc h es on th e h an d le o f a tool fo u n d a t Ish an g o , in
ce n tral eq u a to rial A frica, as a
n o ta tio n a l sy stem o f tallies th a t m ark e d tim e acco rd
in g to p h ases o f th e m oon.
C e rta in aspects o f this cultural ‘tak e-o ff’, such as vocal co
m m u n icatio n (singing in cluded),
d an ce, a n d p a in tin g d o n e d irectly o n to b o d ie s,
can n ev er be know n. M u c h sm all-scale
o r p o rta b le a r t m a y have v anished. A n d in m an y p a
rts o f th e w orld th e re are m arkings
o n rocks th a t sim p ly c a n n o t b e secu rely d ated by
archaeologists. T h e s e a re reaso n s why,
in any investigation o f th e origins o f a rt, atte n tio n
focuses u p o n the cav e-p ain tin g s o f
15. P alaeo lith ic E u ro p e . A cc ep tin g th a t th e y are th e b
e s t-p re serv ed an d m o st visible signs
o f th e global creative explosion, h o w d o we sta rt to
explain th e ir ap p e aran c e?
A R T FO R ART'S SAKE?
P ablo P icasso, arg u ab ly the m o st illustrious a rtist o f th e
tw en tieth ce n tu ry , seem s to have
p a id a visit to th e new ly discovered L a sc a u x cave in
1941. ‘We have le a rn t n o th in g !’ is
re p o rte d as his aw ed, alm o st in d ig n a n t c o m m e n t,
im p ly in g th a t th e an o n y m o u s S to n e
Age d ra u g h tsm e n o f L a sc a u x h ad m iracu lo u sly
an ticip ate d th e rep rese n tatio n al aims
an d ach iev em en ts o f a r t w ith in m o d e rn , ‘civilized’
society. U n ca n n ily (as it m u s t have
seem ed to h im ), th e p ro m in e n t anim als at L a sc a u x
w ere bulls - fav o u red subjects o f
Picasso, a n d in d e ed , fea tu rin g in o n e o f his earliest p
ain tin g s as a boy. Also, som e o f the
anim als d ep icte d at L a sc a u x have th e ir f o rm em p h
asized in thick black outline. T h is is
also u n c a n n ily sim ilar to a p icto rial device fav o u red at
o ne tim e by P icasso an d his p o st-
16. im p re ssio n ist c o n te m p o ra rie s, so m e o f w h o m w
ould b e n ic k n am e d in 1905 as les fauves
(th e w ild o n es). It m u s t have u n n e rv e d th e S p an ish
p ain ter, to see a stylistic invention
p re -e m p te d by m a n y th o u sa n d s o f years: ‘th e
shock o f th e o ld ’, we m ig h t say. L a te r, at
a P arisian ex h ib itio n in 1953, P icasso re -crea ted fo r his
ow n w ork th e flickering, to rch lit
ex p erien ce o f view ing a p reh isto ric cave - su c h w as
his e m p a th y fo r an cestral com rades.
P icasso ’s rea ctio n is one th a t m an y o f us w o u ld
share. Id en tify in g th e p recise species
o f b iso n , ibex o r m a m m o th m ig h t b e b e y o n d us. B
u t, like y o u n g M a ria a t A ltam ira, we
have little essential difficulty in seeing w h a t th ese an c ie n t
artists w ere try in g to rep resen t.
Instinctively, th e n , we m ay w an t to ‘u p d a te ’ th e
earliest h u m a n a rtists by assu m in g
th a t th ey p a in te d fo r th e sheer joy o f p ain tin g .
T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
T h e p h ilo s o p h e rs o f C lassical G re e c e re c o g n iz
e d it as a d e fin in g tr a it o f h u m a n s
17. to ‘d elig h t in w orks o f im ita tio n ’ - to en jo y th e v e
ry a c t a n d tr iu m p h o f r e p re s e n ta tio n .
I f w e w ere close to a real lio n o r sn a k e, w e s h o u ld
feel frig h te n e d . B u t a w ell-e x ec u ted
picture o f a lio n o r sn a k e will give u s p le a s u re . W h y
s u p p o s e th a t o u r P alaeo lith ic
a n c e s to rs w ere an y d iffe ren t?
T h is sim p le a c c e p ta n c e o f c a v e -p a in tin g s as a r
t fo r a r t ’s sake h a s a c e r ta in ap p e al.
T o th in k o f L a s c a u x as a g allery o r salon allow s it
to b e a s o r t o f sp e cia l v ie w in g p la ce
w h e re th e h a n d iw o rk o f a c c o m p lish e d artistes m
ig h t b e d isplayed. A n d a t L a s c a u x , th e
e v id e n t ca re w ith w h ic h in d iv id u a l an im als h av e
b e e n a b s tra c te d fro m an y n a tu ra l
b a c k g ro u n d o r la n d s c a p e m a k es it te m p tin g to
s u p p o s e th a t th e p a in te r s s o u g h t to cre ate ,
as it w ere, ‘life s tu d ie s ’ o f th e ir su b jects. P lau sib ly ,
daily ex iste n ce in p a r ts o f P alaeo lith ic
E u r o p e m a y n o t h av e b e e n so h a r d , w ith a n a b
u n d a n c e o f rea d y fo o d , a n d th e re fo re th e
le isu re tim e fo r art.
T h e p ro b le m s w ith th is e x p la n a tio n , h o w ev e r, a
re vario u s. In th e firs t p la c e , th e
18. p ro life ra tio n o f arc h a e o lo g ic a l d isc o v erie s - a n d
th is in c lu d e s s o m e o f th e w o rld ’s
in n u m e ra b le ro c k a r t sites th a t c a n n o t b e d a te d
- h a s se rv e d to e m p h a s iz e a re m a rk a b ly
lim ite d r e p e rto ire o f su b jects. T h e im a g es th a t r e
c u r a re th o s e o f a n im als; a n d ,
c o m m o n ly , sim ilar ty p e s o f an im al. H u m a n fig u
re s a re u n u s u a l; a n d w h e n th e y d o m a k e
a n a p p e a r a n c e , th e y a re ra re ly d o n e w ith th e
sa m e a tte n tio n to fo rm a c c o r d e d to th e
an im als. I f P ala eo lith ic a rtis ts w ere sim p ly seek in g
to re p r e s e n t th e b e a u ty o f th e w o rld
a r o u n d th e m , w o u ld th e y n o t h av e le ft a fa r g r e
a te r ra n g e o f p ic tu re s - o f tree s a n d
flo w ers, o f th e s u n a n d th e sta rs?
A f u r th e r q u e s tio n to th e th e o ry o f a r t f o r a r
t ’s sake is p o s e d b y th e h ig h in c id e n c e
o f P ala eo lith ic im ag es th a t a p p e a r n o t b e im itativ
e o f an y reality w h atso ev e r. T h e s e are
g e o m e tric a l s h a p e s o r p a tte r n s c o n s is tin g o f
d o ts o r lines. S u c h m a rk s m a y b e f o u n d
iso late d o r re p e a te d o ver a p a r tic u la r su rfa ce , b u
t also sc a tte re d ac ro ss m o r e re c o g n iz a b le
19. fo rm s . A g o o d e x a m p le o f th is m a y b e se e n in
th e geo lo g ically s p e c ta c u la r g ro tto o f P ech
M e rle , in th e L o t re g io n o f F ra n c e (Fig. 9). H e re
w e e n c o u n te r s o m e fa v o u rite an im als
fro m th e P alaeo lith ic re p e rto ire - a p a ir o f s to u t-b
e llie d h o rses. B u t o v er a n d a r o u n d th e
h o r s e s ’ o u tlin e s a re m u ltip le d a r k s p o ts , d a u b
e d in d isre g a rd fo r th e o th e rw ise n a tu ra listic
re p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e an im als. W h a t d o es s u c h p
a tte r n in g im itate?
T h e r e is also th e f a c to r o f lo c atio n . T h e ca v ern s
o f A lta m ira a n d L a s c a u x m ig h t
co n c eiv ab ly q u alify as u n d e r g r o u n d g alleries, b u
t m a n y o th e r p a in tin g s h av e b e e n f o u n d
¿3SSKgm
9 T h e 'S p o tte d H o rse s’ in t h e caves o f Pech M erle,
France, c. 20.000 BC, with th e intriguing p a tte rn s o f d a rk
spots
aro u n d t h e h o rses' outlines.T he hand stencils may b e la
te r to u ch es.
T H E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N
in recesses to tally u n su ita b le fo r any k in d o f view ing
20. - tig h t n o o k s a n d cra n n ies th a t m u s t
have b e e n aw kw ard even fo r th e artists to p e n e tra te ,
le t alone fo r an y o n e else w an tin g
to see th e a rt. F o r ex am p le, a p a in te d cave ad jo in in
g P ech M e rle , called L e C o m b e l, can
o n ly b e re a c h e d by sq u eezin g th ro u g h a n a rro w
cleft in th e ro ck a n d craw ling alo n g o n
o n e ’s sto m ac h ; th e re was n ev e r an y ro o m to a d m
ire th e h an d iw o rk in co m fo rt.
Finally, we m ay d o u b t th e n o tio n th a t th e U p p e r P
alaeolithic w as a G a r d e n o f E d e n
in w h ich fo o d cam e readily, leaving h u m a n s am p le
tim e to a m u se th em selv es w ith art.
F o r E u ro p e it w as still th e Ice A ge. A n estim ate o f
th e basic level o f su sten an c e th e n
n e c e s sa ry fo r in d iv id u al h u m a n survival h as b e e n
ju d g e d a t 2 2 0 0 calories p e r da}'. T h is
c o n s id eratio n , c o m b in e d w ith th e stark ic o n o g ra
p h ic em p h asis u p o n an im als in th e cave
a rt, has p e rs u a d e d so m e arch aeo lo g ists th a t th e p
rim a ry m o tiv e b e h in d P alaeolithic
im ag es m u s t lie w ith th e p rim a ry activity o f P
alaeolithic p eo p le - h u n tin g .
A R T A N D H U N T IN G
21. H u n tin g is a skill. T ra c k in g , stalking, ch asin g a n d
killing th e p rey are difficult, so m etim es
d a n g e ro u s activities. W h a t if th e p ro ce ss c o u ld b e
m a d e easier - by art?
In th e early d ec ad e s o f th e tw en tieth c e n tu ry , an in
flu en tial F re n c h arch aeo lo g ist,
A b b é H e n ri Breuil (1 8 7 7 -1 9 6 1 ), m a d e this su g g
estio n th e basis fo r his th e o ry th a t
th e cav e-p ain tin g s w ere all a b o u t ‘sy m p a th e tic m a
g ic ’. T h e re a so n w hy P alaeolithic artists
so o ften d e p ic te d an im als w as th a t th e b u sin e ss o f
h u n tin g an im als p re o c c u p ie d th e m
a n d th e ir c o n tem p o rarie s. A n d th e a rtists striv ed
diligently to m ake th e ir an im al im ages
evocative a n d realistic b ec au s e th e y w ere a tte m p tin g
to ‘c a p tu re th e s p irit’ o f th e ir prey.
As B reuil stressed , th ese d e b u ta n t h u m a n a rtists
clearly d id n o t d raw like children.
W h a t co u ld have p r o m p te d th e ir stu d io u s atte n tio
n to m a k in g su c h n atu ralistic,
reco g n izab le im ages? F o r B reuil, it h a d to c o m e fro
m so m e e x tra o rd in a ry b elief a b o u t
th e p o w er o f im ages. I f a h u n te r w ere able to m ake a
tru e likeness o f so m e an im al, th e n
22. th a t an im al w as v irtu ally tra p p e d . Im ag es, th e re fo
re, h a d th e m agical cap acity to c o n fe r
su ccess o r lu c k in th e h u n t.
As w ith th e in te rp re ta tio n o f cav e-p ain tin g s as a r t
fo r a r t’s sake, th e re is a general
elem e n t to th e th e o ry o f h u n tin g m ag ic th a t is im
m ed iately attractive. A fter all, anyone
w h o h as ever kissed a p h o to g r a p h know s th a t im ages
c a n serve th e p u rp o s e o f w ishful
th in k in g . M a n y in stan ces are k n o w n o f societies in
w h ich im ages are h o n o u re d as
27
T H E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N
p o te n tia l s u r ro g a te s o f reality. V o o d o o -ty p e s u
p e rs titio n s , fo r in sta n c e , rely o n th e b elief
th a t stick in g p in s in a w ax effigy o f s o m e o n e will m
a k e th a t p e r s o n feel p a in . A r t th e re b y
b e c o m e s a m e d iu m fo r m ag ic. A n d w h ile w e m ig
h t a c c e p t th a t th e im ag e o f a lio n o r
a sn a k e d o e s n o t te rrify u s like th e real tilin g , it is
23. also well d o c u m e n te d th a t w e a re q u ite
c a p a b le o f re s p o n d in g to a n im a g e as if it were
real. B e in g a C a th o lic p rie s t, B reu il k n ew
well e n o u g h th a t m a n y p e o p le o f his tim e c o u ld
s ta n d b e fo re a p ic tu r e o r s ta tu e o f th e
V irg in M a r y w ith all d ie re s p e c t d u e to a n a n im
a te p re se n c e .
B reu il co u ld p o in t to f u r th e r sp e cific fe a tu re s o f
th e c a v e -p a in tin g s th a t fa v o u re d
h is a p p r o a c h . In n u m e ro u s im a g es, a n a n im a l
w as sh o w n a p p a r e n tly s tr u c k b y arro w s
o r s p e a rs , o r else m a rk e d as if w o u n d e d o r s n a re
d {Fig. 10). A s fo r th e m a n y an im a ls n o t
sh o w n as d ir e c t v ic tim s o f th e h u n t, th e y c o u ld
b e lo n g to a r t ’s m a g ica l p u r p o s e
n o n eth ele ss. L a rg e h e rd s , w ith w ell-fed o r p r e g n
a n t b e a sts sig n ified y e t m o re w ishful
th in k in g o n th e p a r t o f h u n te rs h o p in g f o r th e
b o u n tif u l in c re a s e o f th e ir p rey . A n d , o f
c o u rs e , it w as th e m y ste rio u s o r o c c u lt fu n c tio n
o f th e p a in tin g s th a t, f o r B reuil,
e x p la in e d w h y th e y w ere lo c a te d d e e p u n d e r
g r o u n d . M a g ic h a d to b e p e r f o rm e d in
d a rk p la c e s, o u t o f sig h t; it w as a s e c re t o p e ra tio
24. n .
B re u il’s th e o ry a p p e a le d to th o s e w h o en v isag e
d th e Ic e A ge in E u ro p e as a p e rio d
o f h a r d su rv iv al, w h e n m a m m o th s r o a m e d th e
la n d , a n d fierce b e a rs c o m p e te d w ith
h u m a n s f o r ro ck y sh e lte rs. A n d th e e le m e n t o f
s u p e rs titio u s o r irra tio n a l b e lie f su ited
a n y o n e w h o se view o f th e p a s t w as s h a p e d b y
th e s o r t o f d e s k -b o u n d a n th ro p o lo g y so
e lo q u e n tly p r e s e n te d b y J.G . F ra z e r in h is m u
lti-v o lu m e c o m p e n d iu m , The Golden B ough
( 1 9 0 7 -1 5 ). S u b title d ‘A S tu d y in M a g ic a n d R e
lig io n ’, F r a z e r ’s w o rk s e e m e d , fro m
th e p o e tT .S . E lio t’s a d m irin g p o in t o f view , to c
re a te ‘an a b y s m o f tim e ’. Yet th e F ra z e ria n
p u r s u it o f d a ta f ro m ‘p rim itiv e ’ so c ie tie s relied u
p o n a n ideal o f p ro g re s s c h a ra c te ris tic
o fV ic to r ia n B rita in . F r a z e r h im s e lf sty le d it as
‘th e lo n g m a r c h , th e slow a n d to ilso m e
a s c e n t, o f h u m a n ity fro m sa v a g e ry to civ ilisa tio
n ’. T r u s t in m a g ic ia n s w as, fo r F ra z e r,
a key d e fin in g f e a tu re o f ‘sa v ag e’ societies.
A n th ro p o lo g y h a s m o v e d o n f r o m s u c h c o m
p lac en c y . B u t th e m a in o b je c tio n to
25. B re u il’s th e o ry arise s n o t fro m id e o lo g ic al d isd a
in ; r a th e r f ro m m o re atten tiv e
arc h a e o lo g ic a l e x a m in a tio n o f th e a n c ie n t d e
b ris w ith in th e caves - in p a r tic u la r, analysis
10 (p rev io u s p ag e) W o u n d e d bison fro m N iau x
caves, n e a r A riég e, France, c. 14,000 BC.
T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
o f f o o d re m a in s le ft a r o u n d h e a r th s o r in m id
d e n s ( ru b b is h d u m p s ) . I f th e p a in tin g s
w e re c r e a te d f o r th e p u r p o s e o f su c c e ss fu l h
u n tin g , it w o u ld b e lo g ic al to e x p e c t th a t th e
a n im a ls d e p ic te d o n th e ca v e w alls w e re th o s e
f e a tu rin g in th e d aily d ie t o f th e c a v e ’s
in h a b ita n ts . B u t th is c o rre la tio n d o e s n o t h o ld .
A t L a s c a u x , th e an im a ls p a in te d w ere b u lls,
h o r s e s a n d r e d d ee r. M o s t o f th e b o n e s d is c
a r d e d in th e cav e, h o w e v e r, w e re o f re in d e e r.
A t A lta m ira th e y d re w b is o n , b u t th e a s s o c ia te
d b o n e s w ere th o s e o f d e e r, g o a t a n d w ild
b o a r , w ith sh ellfish a d d in g a little variety. M a m m o
th s a p p e a r w ith so m e f r e q u e n c y in th e
caves o f th e A rd é c h e a n d P é r ig o rd re g io n s , b u t
26. n o t in th e r e c o r d o f h u m a n s u b s is te n c e
a t th a t tim e. A s o n e a r c h a e o lo g is t p u ts it, ‘th e U
p p e r P a la e o lith ic p a in te r s h a d h o r s e s a n d
b is o n o n th e ir m in d , w h e re a s th e y h a d r e in d e
e r a n d p ta r m ig a n in th e ir s to m a c h s ’.
I f n o t p ro p e lle d b y h u n g e r , w h y d id th e y p a in
t? A lth o u g h th e s c ie n c e o f
n e u ro p h y s io lo g y w as in its in fa n c y , B re u il a n d
h is c o n te m p o r a r ie s s e n s e d th a t i t w as
f u n d a m e n ta lly u n n a tu r a l f o r th e h u m a n m in d
to p r o d u c e a n d u s e re p r e s e n ta tio n a l
im a g e s in th e firs t p la c e , c itin g th e r e p o r te d ca
se o f a T u rk is h M u s lim w h o , h a v in g h a d n o
e x p e rie n c e o f p ic tu r e s o r d ra w in g s , fa ile d to
id e n tify a tw o -d im e n s io n a l im a g e o f a h o rs e
b e c a u s e h e c o u ld n o t w a lk a r o u n d it. T h e c a
p a c ity f o r im a g e s , th o u g h q u ic k ly a c q u ir e d ,
d id n o t s e e m to b e in n a te . I f w e n e e d to h av e s
o m e m e n ta l e x p e rie n c e o r tr a in in g in o rd e r
to recognize s y m b o ls , h o w d id w e e v e r a c q u ire th
e ab ility to create th e m in th e f irs t place?
S o th e q u e s t c o n tin u e d - th e q u e s t to e x p la in
h o w th is p e c u lia r h u m a n h a b it o f
re p r e s e n ta tio n b e g a n .
27. A R T A S A S Y M B O L IC SYSTEM
A n y o n e w h o c o n s id e r s th e p ra c tic a litie s o f in
te r io r d e c o r a tio n a t A lta m ira a n d L a s c a u x
will s u p p o s e th a t s o m e s y ste m o f sc a ffo ld in g m
u s t h av e b e e n e r e c te d f o r th e p a in te rs .
E x p e r ts c o n f ir m th e s u p p o s itio n . Im a g e s w ere
n o t ca su a lly s c ra w le d o n th e w alls, b u t laid
o u t as p a r t o f a c o n s id e r e d p r o g r a m m e o r s c
h e m e o f d e c o ra tio n .
I t is to th e c r e d it o f a n o th e r F r e n c h sc h o la r, A
n d ré L e r o i- G o u r h a n ( 1 9 1 1 - 8 6 ) ,
th a t th e th e o r y h e o f fe re d as a n a lte rn a tiv e to a
r t- f o r - h u n tin g w as b a s e d o n a n a c c e p ta n c e
o f P a la e o lith ic im a g e ry as a g r a n d p r o je c t - a n
y th in g b u t r a n d o m sk e tch e s. S tro n g ly
in flu e n c e d b y th e S tr u c tu r a lis t sc h o o l o f a n th
ro p o lo g y (see p a g e 8 9 ) , L e r o i- G o u r h a n
p r o p o s e d c o n s id e r in g th e c a v e -p a in tin g s as a
sy m b o lic sy s te m b a s e d o n b in a ry
o p p o s itio n s o r p a irin g s , w ith th e e s sen tial d iv is
io n b e in g th a t b e tw e e n m a n a n d w o m a n .
T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
28. N o to rio u s ly , th e re a re v e ry few im a g e s o f h u m
a n s in th e caves. B u t w h a t if c e rta in
an im als w ere to b e as so c ia te d w ith m a les , a n d o th
e rs w ith fem ales? W ith re a s o n s ra n g in g
fro m th e e le m e n ta ry to th e so p h is tic a te d , L e r o
i- G o u r h a n a rg u e d th a t h o rs e s , ibexes a n d
d e e r w ere sy m b o lically m a s c u lin e , w h ile a u ro c h
s a n d b is o n w ere fe m in in e . H is analysis
defies s u m m a ry : b u t u ltim a te ly - as m ig h t b e g u
essed - it le ad s to th e s u p p o s itio n o f
so m e k in d o f fertility rite sta g e d in th e caves, fo r w
h ich th e im a g es m u s t s e rv e as liturgy.
S o m e w o u ld say th a t L e r o i- G o u r h a n ’s a p p r o a
c h w as m u s ic to th e e a rs o f an y o n e
raise d o n th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l d o c trin e s o f S ig m u
n d F re u d . C e rta in ly th e re w ere F re u d ia n
o v e rto n e s to th e w ay in w h ic h L e r o i- G o u r h a n
e x p la in e d th e g e o m e tric m o tifs th a t
r e c u rr e d in th e caves. A g ain h e id e n tifie d a m a le -
fe m a le g e n d e r d iv id e. S tra ig h t lines
a n d d o ts sig n ified m a le, w h ile c irc u la r o r e n c lo s
in g fo rm s w ere e m b le m a tic o f fem ale
fo rm . O th e r arc h a e o lo g ists h a d a lre a d y n o te d c
e rta in p a in te d sh a p e s o r g raffiti suggestive
29. o f o n e p a r tic u la r p a r t o f fem a le a n a to m y - th e
v ulva - w h ich fa v o u re d th is sexually
sy m b o lic rea d in g . L e r o i- G o u r h a n h im s e lf, h o w
ev e r, re m a in e d r e lu c ta n t to sp ecify th e
im p lied fertility rite.
T o d a y it m a y b e h a r d to re s is t b e in g a m u s e d
by th e s o r t o f in te rp re ta tio n th a t sees
ev ery s tra ig h t lin e o r s p e a r as p h allic , ev e ry circle
as a w o m b . Yet, as e v e n his c ritic s ag re e,
L e r o i- G o u r h a n w as su re ly r ig h t to p e rs e v e re
in his a s s u m p tio n th a t th e P alaeo lith ic
artis ts w o rk e d intentionally, th a t th e re w as a m e th o d
a n d a m e a n in g to th e ir w o rk as a
w h o le. B u t if o n e p r o b le m w ith h is th e o ry is th a
t it d e p e n d s u p o n a m o d e rn o b se ssio n
w ith sex u ality , th e n th e g en e ral q u e s tio n a rise s o
f h o w w e s h o u ld p ro c e e d . W e still n e e d
so m e e x p la n a tio n o f h o w th e k n a c k o r c a p a c
ity fo r r e p re s e n ta tio n firs t click ed in to p lace.
C a n an y analysis b rid g e th e d ista n c e b e tw e e n m
o d e rn view ers a n d a n c ie n t artists?
O U T O F A F R IC A
In tire age o f o u r g r e a t-g r a n d p a re n ts - th e g e n
30. e ra tio n fo r w h o m th e w o rk o f J.G . F ra z e r
w as e n lig h te n in g - th e re w as little o b je c tio n to m a
k in g c o m p a ris o n s b e tw e e n th e
p r e h is to ric p a s t a n d c o m m u n itie s o f so -c a lle d
‘p rim itiv e p e o p le s ’ th a t h a d su rv iv ed
(by iso latio n ) in to th e in d u stria liz e d w o rld . T o d a y
, it w o u ld b e th o u g h t o ffen siv e a n d
m is lea d in g to d e s c rib e , fo r e x a m p le , th e e x is te
n c e o f A u stra lia n A b o rig in e s a ro u n d
1 800 a d as e q u iv a le n t to th e S to n e A g e. A n d y e t
th e im p u lse to d ra w so m e an alo g ies
b e tw e e n a s u rv iv in g o r d o c u m e n te d society7 o f
h u n te r- g a th e r e r s a n d th e h u n te r- g a th e r in g
T H E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N
e x iste n ce o f p eo p le in th e P ala eo lith ic p a s t is d
ifficu lt to resist, even i f th e d ista n c e is
m e a s u r e d n o t only ac ro ss tim e, b u t also a c ro ss c o n
tin e n ts. J u s t su c h a n o n -ju d g e m e n ta l
e x p la n a tio n b y an alo g y h a s lately e m e rg e d , in
je ctin g fre s h en erg y in to th e d e b a te a b o u t
th e b e g in n in g s o f h u m a n ity ’s g ift fo r re p re s e n
ta tio n . T h e th e o ry co m es fro m A frica,
31. a n d h o w it evolved is w o rth tra c in g in so m e detail.
T h e D ra k e n s b e rg m o u n ta in s a re th e m a in c o n
to u rs o f s o u th e rn A frica. T o th e east,
b e y o n d a co a sta l p la in , lies D u r b a n ; d u e n o r th
is J o h a n n e s b u rg a n d th e in te rio r p la te a u
o r veldt; w ith in th e ra n g e , geologically, is th e sm all, s
n o w -to p p e d k in g d o m o f L eso th o .
M o s t o f th e D ra k e n s b e rg p ea k s n o w b e lo n g to
th e p ro v in c e o f K w a Z u lu -N a ta l. In a n d
a r o u n d th is are a are m a n y p la c e -n a m e s th a t re so
n a te in S o u th A fric a ’s m o d e rn h isto ry ,
sites o f co n flict b e tw e e n B o e r se ttle rs, B ritish co lo
n ists a n d Z u lu trib e sm e n : S p io n K o p ,
L a d y s m ith , R o rk e ’s D r i f t a n d m o re . B u t b e fo
re th e B ritish , th e B oers o r th e Z u lu s
im p a c te d o n th is la n d s c a p e , it h a d b e e n lo n g o
c c u p ie d b y a p e o p le w h o se official p lace
in h is to ry is so u n c e r ta in th a t n o o n e is q u ite s u
re w h a t to call th e m . T h e y u s e d to b e
re f e r re d to collectively as ‘B u s h m e n ’; lately ‘th e S a
n ’ h as b e e n p re fe rre d . In fac t, b o th
n a m e s h av e p ejo rativ e c o n n o ta tio n s , b u t sin ce th
e re is n o re a d y altern ativ e, w e shall u se
th e te r m ‘B u s h m e n ’ h e re , fo r th e sake o f c o n v e
32. n ie n ce a n d w ith o u t d isresp ec t.
T h e B u s h m e n ’s m o d e s o f h a b ita tio n a n d su b
siste n c e in th e D ra k e n s b e rg c h a n g e d
v e ry little o v er th o u s a n d s o f years. T h e m e n h u n
te d an im als, u sin g sp e a rs a n d arro w s
tip p e d w ith p o iso n ; th e w o m e n g a th e re d p la n
ts, g rasse s a n d ro o ts, w ith n o o th e r tool
th a n a w e ig h ted d ig g in g -stick . S m all c o m m u n itie
s m o v e d fro m u p la n d to lo w lan d areas
as se aso n s c h a n g e d , m a k in g u s e o f n a tu ra l sh e
lte rs w h e re available. L ik e o th e r n o m a d ic
p e o p le s, th e D ra k e n s b e rg B u s h m e n n e e d e d v
ery few p o sse ssio n s, so o n e m ig h t h ave
g u e s se d th a t th e y left few tra c e s o f th e ir p re s e n
c e in th is te rrito ry . T h is is, in d e e d , th e
case - e x c e p t in th e crag s a n d crevices o f th e sa n d s
to n e e s c a rp m e n t th e re a re th o u s a n d s
o f p a in te d im ages.
C o m p a ra b le in q u a n tity to th e ro c k a r t sites o f
th e K a k a d u are a in n o r th e r n
A u stralia, th e B u s h m e n p a in tin g s o f th e D ra k e n
s b e r g a re n o t ca ta lo g u ed ; u n lik e th e
K a k a d u im a g es, th e y are e n tirely a n o n y m o u s a n
d im p o ssib le to d ate. P a in tin g s d o n e only
33. 2 0 0 y ea rs ago m a y lo o k b r ig h te r th a n w o rk d o n
e 2 0 ,0 0 0 y ears earlier, a n d c e r ta in scen es
(s u c h as m e n sh o w n c a rry in g g u n s ) a p p e a r to
b e re fe re n c e s to th e co lo n ial in tru d e rs .
E ssentially, h o w ev er, th e n u m e ro u s im ag es se em v
ery sim ilar an d c o h e re n t w ith in th e
re g io n , a n d sim ilar to p a in tin g s left in so m e o th e r
p la c e s o c c u p ie d b y th e B u s h m e n .
TH E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
T h e s e w ere n o t always re c o g n iz e d fo r w h a t th e y
w ere. In 1918 clim b e rs e x p lo rin g
th e B ra n d b e rg M a s s if (o f m o d e rn N a m ib ia ) c a
m e ac ro ss ro ck p a in tin g s in a ce rta in
ravine. C o lo u re d co p ies w ere d u ly m a d e a n d sh o w
n so m e y ears la ter to H e n r i B reuil,
th e n a tte n d in g a c o n fe re n c e in J o h a n n e s b u rg .
T h e A b b é p ro n o u n c e d th a t n o in d ig e n o u s
p e o p le h a d m a d e th e se im ag es, b u t fo re ig n e rs o
f ‘N ilo tic -M e d ite rra n e a n o rig in ’ -
p e rh a p s ém ig rés f ro m B ro n ze A ge C re te , w h o se
style se em e d a p p a r e n t in a p a rtic u la r
fig u re d u b b e d by B reu il as th e ‘W h ite L a d y ’. I t h
34. as sin ce tra n s p ire d th a t this fig u re is
m ale, a n d ty p ic a l B u s h m a n w ork; b u t to u p h o ld
e rs o f th e a p a r th e id sy stem - w h ereb y
w h ite a n d b lack p e o p le in S o u th A frica w ere k e p
t a p a r t - B reu il’s v e rd ic t w as w elcom e
p r o o f th a t th e earliest in h a b ita n ts o f th is la n d h
a d b e e n E u ro p e a n s . T h e n o tio n w as
so p le asin g to th e c o u n try ’s colonial a d m in is tra to rs
th a t, d u rin g th e S e c o n d W orld W ar,
th e y gave a c ad e m ic refu g e to B reu il in Jo h a n n e s b
u rg - s p o n s o re d by n o n e o th e r th a n
th e c o u n tr y ’s p re m ie r, J.C . S m u ts.
B reu il’s p re p o s te ro u s gloss o f th e ‘W h ite L a d y ’ is
p e rh a p s su fficie n t in d ic a tio n o f
h o w little specialist atte n tio n w as d ev o ted to th e im
ages left by th e B u s h m e n - im ag es th a t
w ere, o f c o u rs e , g rad u a lly fad in g fro m m o d e rn
view. T h e n eg lec t m o re o r less p e rsis te d
u n til th e early 19 60s, w h en a y o u n g local sc h o o lm a
ster s ta rte d to ex p lo re th e D ra k e n sb e rg
p ain tin g s m o re studiously. H is n a m e w as D a v id L
ew is-W illiam s, a n d w h a t b e g a n as
a te a c h e r’s p a s tim e led firs t to a d o c to ra te , t h e n a
p ro fe sso rial ch a ir, a n d u ltim ately a
35. d ed ic a te d R o ck A rt In stitu te (a t th e U n iv e rsity o
fW itw a te rs ra n d in Jo h a n n e s b u rg ).
T h e c o n s p ic u o u s su b jects o f B u s h m e n p a in tin
g s th r o u g h o u t th e D ra k e n sb e rg
are a n im als (Fig. 11). O fte n e n o u g h it seem s th e re is
a scen e in w h ic h so m e fo u r-leg g ed
prey , su c h as an an te lo p e , is s u r ro u n d e d by figures
a rm e d w ith b ow s o r sp ears. C asu al
view ers m ig h t read ily su p p o s e th a t th e s e w ere ch a
ra c te ristic reflectio n s o f daily life
am o n g th e B u s h m e n , to w h o m h u n tin g w as s u p
re m e ly im p o r ta n t (th e ir d is p u te s w ith
th e se ttle rs aro se m o stly fro m access to g am e o r cattle
raid in g ). B u t, as L ew is-W illiam s
sh o w ed , o n e d o es n o t h av e to look v e ry h a rd a t th
e D ra k e n s b e rg p a in tin g s b efo re
realizin g th a t th e se d ep ic tio n s o f h u n tin g are n o t
so stra ig h tfo rw a rd as th a t. S o m e o f the
h u m a n fig u res, on clo ser e x a m in a tio n , a p p e a r to
h ave h o o fs fo r feet, a n d an im al h ead s.
O th e r fig u res, seem in g ly realistic a t firs t g la n ce , have
th e ir necks r e p re s e n te d in lines
o f m a n y w h ite stipples. A c e rta in la rg e s o rt o f a n
te lo p e , th e elan d , d id in d e e d a p p e a r
36. o fte n a n d p ro m in e n tly in th e p ain tin g s. B u t th e B
u s h m e n h a d m a n y o th e r so u rce s o f
fo o d , fo u r-le g g e d o r n o t. W h y so m u c h em p h a
sis u p o n th e elan d ? As fo r th e se h y b rid
11 (above) A scene from th e
main frieze o f th e G am e Pass
Shelter, Kamberg, South Africa.
D ate uncertain.
12 (right) A drawing o f a detail
from th e main frieze o f th e
G am e Pass Shelter; showing a
dying eland and a figure with
hooves and an animal head.
T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
h u m a n -a n im a l fig u re s - th e ria n th r o p ic is th e
official d e s c rip tiv e te rm fo r th e m - w hy
w ere so m e o f th e m a p p e a r in g to s n a tc h a t a n e
la n d ’s tail?
L ew is-W illia m s a ire d all th e s e q u e rie s , w h ic h aro
se f ro m in te r p re tin g th e
D ra k e n s b e r g im a g e s as sc e n e s o f e v e ry d a y
life a m o n g th e B u s h m e n . H e w as also aw are
37. th a t w h ile h u n te r- g a th e r in g p e o p le s m a y se e m
, in W e s te rn eyes, to b e le a d in g re m a rk a b ly
sim p le lives, a t o n e w ith n a tu re , a n th ro p o lo g ic a l
re s e a rc h in v a riab ly d e m o n s tr a te d
o th e rw ise . H u n te r - g a th e re rs a r o u n d th e w o rld
te n d e d to o rg a n iz e th e ir lives a ro u n d
v e ry p re c ise a n d p re s c rip tiv e sy ste m s o f r itu a l
a n d s u p e r n a tu r a l belief. W h y p re s u m e
a n y less o f th e B u s h m e n ?
A n sw ers to q u es tio n s a b o u t tire m e a n in g o f th e D
ra k e n sb e rg im ag es w o u ld , n aturally,
lie w ith th e B u s h m e n w h o p a in te d th e m . D e s p
ite n e a r-g e n o c id e in th e p a s t, a n d th e m o re
r e c e n t im p o s itio n o f b o r d e r s a n d p a s s p o r ts ,
B u s h m e n h av e su rv iv e d in th e K a la h a ri
D e s e rt, e sp ecially in p a r ts o f B o tsw a n a a n d n o r
th w e s t N a m ib ia . B u t th e p ro b le m fo r th o se
try in g to tra c k d o w n th e m e a n in g o f B u s h m a n
a r t is th a t sin ce th e ir d isp la c e m e n t f ro m th e
D ra k e n s b e rg to th e K a la h a ri over a c e n tu r y ag o
, th e B u s h m e n h ave n o t b e e n able to su stain
th e a rtis tic tra d itio n . T h e K a la h a ri is a v e ry d iffe
re n t te rr a in fro m th e D ra k e n s b e rg : it
o ffers few r o c k s u rfa c e s o r sh e lte rs s u ita b le fo r p
38. a in tin g . W h a t d id p e rs is t a m o n g th e
K a la h a ri B u s h m e n , h o w e v e r, w as a p o w e rfu l s
tr a n d o f relig io u s p r a c tic e a n d b e lie f th a t
co u ld b e c o n n e c te d to p re v io u s im a g e s ; also, th
e ra re te s tim o n y o f B u s h m e n voices
re c o rd e d d u r in g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y a n d k
e p t in a n a rc h iv e a t C a p e T o w n . C o m b in in g
th e s e tw o so u rc e s , L ew is-W illia m s w as ab le to m a
k e a c o n v in c in g case th a t th e th o u s a n d s
o f B u s h m e n im a g e s in th e D ra k e n s b e r g w ere
fa r fro m b e in g sc e n e s o f d aily life; r a th e r,
th e y b e lo n g e d to th e s u rre a l e x p e rie n c e o f m
in d s a n d b o d ie s in a s ta te o f ecstasy.
A n e la n d is in th e th ro e s o f d e a th (Fig. 12): its h e a
d h a n g s h eav y ; its d ew la p - th e
th ic k fo ld o f sk in b elo w th e n e c k - is sa g g in g ; a
n d its h in d legs a re c ro ss e d . T h e B u s h m e n
say th a t th e c ro sse d h in d legs o f tire e la n d a re a c
lea r sig n o f p o is o n e d d a r ts ta k in g effect.
H e re , h o w ev e r, w e n o tic e s o m e th in g else. T h e th
e ria n th r o p ic fig u re h o ld in g th e e la n d ’s
tail in o n e h a n d , a n d a s p e a r in tire o th e r, a p p e a
r s to h ave his legs c ro s se d too. H e h a s an
a n im a l’s h e a d a n d ho o fs. C a n it b e , th e n , th a t h
39. e is also d y in g ? I f so, is h e a fig u re w h o
n o t o n ly c o n n e c ts b e tw e e n th e re a lm s o f h u m
a n a n d a n im a l, b u t w h o also in te ra c ts
b e tw e e n th e living a n d th e d e a d ?
T r a n s c r ip ts o f B u s h m a n b eliefs a n d p r a c tic e s
p o in t to th e reality o f ju s t s u c h a
fig u re in th e p e r s o n o f a sh a m a n : a s e n io r in d iv
id u a l e s te e m e d as a h e a le r, a ra in -m a k e r,
T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
a n in s p ira tio n f o r th e h u n t, a n d s o m e o n e w ith
a c ce ss to th e s p ir it w o rld . T h is is n o t only
th e s tu f f o f arc h iv es: to th is d ay, s h a m a n s ex ist a
m o n g th e K a la h a ri B u s h m e n . B e in g
g o o d - n a tu r e d a b o u t visits f r o m in q u is itiv e r e s
e a r c h e rs , to u r is ts a n d film c re w s alike, th e
B u s h m e n h a v e r e p e a te d ly c o n f ir m e d th e c e
n tra l s ig n ific an c e o f s h a m a n ic ritu a ls to th e ir
society. B u s h m a n s h a m a n s h av e th e ir o w n m e ta
p h o r ic w ay s o f r e c o u n tin g h o w th e y
e x p e r ie n c e th e ir c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s u p e rn a
tu r a l; th e y s p e a k in te rm s o f b e in g s tre tc h e d
o n r o p e s , lin e s o r th r e a d s to a n alm ig h ty c r e a
40. to r o r so m e n e th e rw o rld o f a n c e s to rs . B u t
(a g a in th a n k s to a n o p e n d isp o s itio n o n th e p a
r t o f th o s e c o n c e r n e d ) it is also p o ssib le
to w itn e ss a ‘tr a n c e d a n c e ’, in w h ic h a B u s h m a
n s h a m a n p e rfo rm s .
T h is w as h o w it h a p p e n e d in a sm a ll k raa l o r
village n o t fa r f r o m T s u m k w e in
n o r th w e s t N a m ib ia . A t d u s k a fire w as lit, a r o u n
d w h ic h th e w o m e n o f th e village, w ith
th e ir in fa n ts , s a t in a circle. T h e y b e g a n to se t u p
a rh y th m o f c h a n tin g a n d c lap p in g .
V ario u s o f th e ir m e n fo lk w e re a r o u n d , in c lu d
in g th e a g e d h e a d m a n o f th e village; so m e
b e g a n to tr e a d a r o u n d th e circle, h u m m in g a lo
n g w ith th e so n g s. T h e s ta r o f th e sh o w
T H E BLEEK A N D
EFINED BY o n e a n th ro p o lo g is t a s 'th e
h arm less p e o p le ', t h e B ushm en co m m u n itie s
o f s o u th e rn A frica w e r e p e r s e c u te d t h r o u g h o
u t
t h e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y by w h ite s e ttle r s a n d
Bantu
p a sto ra lists alike. M any w e r e e x te rm in a te d : s o m e
41. w e r e k e p t as co n v icts in C a p e Town. It w a s a m o n g
t h e s e p ris o n e rs t h a t W ilh e lm Bleek (1 8 2 7 -7 5 )
did his rese a rc h . Bleek w a s a philologist, w ith a
p rim a ry in te r e s t in t h e clicking language o f t h e
B ushm en. A id e d by his sister-in-law Lucy Lloyd, h e
filled n u m e ro u s n o te b o o k s w ith tra n sc rip tio n s o
f
in te rv ie w s co v erin g all a s p e c ts o f B ushm an life
and
folklore. Alas, t w o n o te b o o k s c arry in g in fo rm atio n
a b o u t B ushm an painting a re listed as missing fro m
L L O Y D A R C H IV E
t h e arch iv e k e p t a t t h e U niversity o f C a p e Town.
O th e r s , h o w e v e r p ro v id e a rich v erb atim a c c o u
n t
o f hun tin g te c h n iq u e s, stargazing, m ed icin e a n d so
on. It is fro m this r e c o r d t h a t w e c o m p r e h e n d th
e
cen trality o f ritual in t h e lives o f t h e Bushm en.
C hristian m issio n aries th o u g h t th e m irreligious.
42. O n t h e c o n tra ry : t h e m o s t p ow erful figures in any
B ushm an clan w e r e its spiritual lead ers, its ritual
specialists.T hey have t h e ir o w n local titles: t o te r m
th e m ‘sh a m an s' is, f o r t h e sake o f co n v e n ie n c e ,
a t
least p re fe ra b le t o 'w itch d o c to rs '. W h a te v e r w e
call
th e s e e ld e rs, t h e Bleek a n d Lloyd p a p e r s suggest
th a t th e y w e r e v e ry likely t o have b e e n t h e a rtis
ts o f
t h e D ra k e n sb e rg a n d o t h e r B ush m an -p ain te d
sites.
13 A B ushm an d a n c e a t a village n e a r T s u m k w e . n
o r t h w e s t N am ibia, in t h e s u m m e r o f 2004,
If
l!
THE BIRTH OF T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
th e n arrived: a d im in u tiv e, sinew y old m a n , w earing
only a loin clo th a n d a se t o f rattles
43. a b o u t his ankles. H e n o w led th e sta m p in g a ro u n d
th e circle; a n d fo r th e n e x t tw o h o u rs
o r so h e h ard ly p a u s e d as lo rd o f th e dance. S o m
etim es h e rea ch ed fo r th e h ead s o f those
sittin g d o w n , as if to tra n s m it so m e o f his en ergy to
th em . O ccasionally, he staggered
away in to th e sh ad o w s, d o u b le d u p an d g asp in g
fo r b rea th ; at o ne p o in t, w hile w eaving
across th e circle, h e fell in to th e fire a n d h a d to b e p
u lle d out: sa n d w as h ea p ed over him
to cool h im dow n. S o m e o f th e w o m en ro se u p a n d
follow ed him . T h e r e was no
w eariness fro m th e m in clap p in g a n d singing. I t seem
ed th e ce rem o n y c o u ld go o n as
lo n g as th e fire glow ed u n d e r th e stars (Fig. 13).
It is in su c h situ atio n s th a t a sh a m an ca n go in to a n
‘altered state o f co n scio u sn e ss’.
Physically, this m an ifests itself in vario u s ways: loss o f b
alan ce, sto m ac h cram p s,
h y p erv e n tila tio n a n d nosebleeds. M entally, it ca n lead
to h allu cin atio n s, th e in ten se
v isio n ary ex p e rien c e o f travelling o u t o f b o d y in to
stran g e y et co n v in cin g places. N o one
c o u ld draw o r p a in t w hile in th e m id s t o f th is so rt o
44. f em o tio n al seizure. B u t revealing
o r recalling w h at h a d co m e in to vision d u rin g a n
altered state o f co n scio u sn ess ... th a t
w o u ld b e tru ly m arv ello u s, a n d p ro o f, as it w ere, o
f th e sh a m a n ’s special status.
F o r several decad es now, D av id L ew is-W illiam s h as arg
u e d th e case th a t the
th o u sa n d s o f B u s h m a n im ages left in th e D ra k e n
sb e rg are b es t ex p lain ed as ‘sh a m a n ic ’:
directly deriv ed fro m th e h allu cin ato ry ex p erien ces o f
sh a m an s w hile in a n altered state
o f conscio u sn ess. T h e r e are, to b eg in w ith, clear signs
th a t physiological effects o f th e
tra n c e d an c e are d ep icted : figures d o u b le d u p w ith
ab d o m in al spasm s; figures w ith red
lines (blood) strea m in g fro m th e ir noses. T h e m a rk e d
elo n g atio n o f m a n y figures m ay
reflect th e r e p o rte d sen satio n o f b ein g stretch ed .
R o ck su rfaces, su c h as th e G a m e P ass S helter, b ec
am e in terfaces b etw een reality
an d th e sp irit w o rld , o n w h ich th e im ag ery o f th e
tra n c e w as re c o rd e d a n d displayed.
T o call these in terfaces ‘m e m b ra n e s ’ is n o t in a p p ro p
ria te . F ig u res o f anim als m ig h t
45. em erg e fro m cracks in th e sto n e (as th ey d o ), a n d p
lacin g a h a n d u p o n th e sto n e, too,
m ig h t give so m e sense o f its p o te n t access to th e d o m
a in o f sp irits a n d an cesto rs.
N o s u m m a ry m atch es th e elo q u en ce w ith w h ich L
ew is-W illiam s h as p u rsu e d
an d p u b lish ed this th e o ry : w e m ay sim ply state h ere
th a t m an y e x p e rts w orldw ide ac ce p t
it. A nthropologically, it is n o t an isolated o r ec ce n tric p h
e n o m e n o n . Parallels ca n be
d raw n , for in stan c e, b etw een th e B u sh m a n sh am an
s a n d th o se am o n g vario u s in d ig en o u s
trib es o f N o rth A m erica, su c h as theY okuts a n d N u m
ic o f C alifo rn ia, w h o se use
T H E BIR TH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
o f hallucinogenic su b sta n ces can be traced in p e tro g ly p
h s (rock m a rkin g s) le ft in sites
o f s a c re d sig n ific an c e. E v id e n c e also s u g g e s ts
th a t s h a m a n s o r ‘clev er m e n ’ a m o n g
th e A b o rig in a l c o m m u n itie s o f n o r t h e r n A u
stra lia p la y e d a p a r tic u la r ro le in c re a tin g
th e m ille n n ia -o ld im a g e ry o f th a t re g io n . E u r o
46. p e a n c o lo n is ts m a y h av e d ism is se d it
all as so m u c h m u m b o - ju m b o , a lth o u g h th e y w
ere h a p p y to a c c e p t s to rie s ( a n d im ag es)
o f a m a n w h o c o u ld c u r e le p e rs w ith h is to u c h
a n d u n d e r g o a n a g o n iz in g d e a th
w ith o u t d y in g .
W h a t, h o w ev e r, h a s th is to d o w ith th e c a v e -p a
in tin g s o f E u r o p e in th e U p p e r
P ala e o lith ic p e rio d ?
T H E N E U R O P S Y C H O L O G IC A L M O D E L
R e a d e rs m a y a lre a d y h av e g u e s se d th e n e x t m
o v e in th e L e w is-W illia m s a r g u m e n t. I t is
n o t to s u g g e st th a t B u s h m e n , N a tiv e A m e r ic a
n s a n d A u s tra lia n A b o rig in e s a re culturally
c o m p a r a b le to p e o p le o f th e S to n e A g e , b u t
to p o in t o u t th a t all a n a to m ic a lly m o d e r n
h u m a n s - in c lu d in g th o s e o f th e P a la e o lith ic
- sh a re a b ra in th a t is h a r d - w ire d ( p r e -
p r o g r a m m e d ) in a c e r ta in way. W h a t o c c u r s w
ith in th is b r a in w h e n w e e n te r a n a lte re d
sta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s is th e re fo re p r e d ic ta b
le - a c o m m o n h u m a n e x p e r ie n c e , as likely
to h av e th e sa m e v isu a l a n d visible e ffe c ts to d a y
47. as it w o u ld h av e d o n e 3 5 ,0 0 0 y e a rs ago.
T h e r e a re m a n y w ay s o f in d u c in g th e a lte re d
sta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s : d ru g s ,
d a n c in g , d a r k n e s s , e x h a u s tio n , h u n g e r , m e d
ita tio n , m ig ra in e a n d s c h iz o p h r e n ia a re
a m o n g th e m . In th e W e s te rn tra d itio n i t is by n o
m e a n s c o n fin e d to h ip p ie s a n d a fa s h io n
f o r th e m in d - e x p a n d in g s u b s ta n c e k n o w n as
L S D . O p iu m ta k e rs o f th e R o m a n tic
p e r io d , n o ta b ly th e E n g lish w rite rs T h o m a s D e
Q u in c e v a n d S a m u e l T a y lo r C o le rid g e ,
w ere g e n e r o u s in p ro v id in g v e rb a l d e s c r ip tio n
s o f th e ir v isio n s. A n d in o u r o w n tim es
s c ie n tists h av e d isc o v e re d sim p le p r o c e d u r e s o
f s e n s o ry d e p riv a tio n th a t e n a b le re s e a rc h
in to th e b r a in ’s fu n c tio n w h e n it c o m e s to ‘se
ein g th in g s ’. T h e re s e a rc h g o e s o n , b u t
a lre a d y it is c le a r th a t th e h u m a n n e r v o u s s y s
te m e x h ib its c e r ta in fe a tu re s o f re s p o n s e
th a t c a n b e g e n e ra liz e d - p r o v id in g , f o r a rc h
a e o lo g is ts , a so -c a lle d n e u ro p s y c h o lo g ic a l
m o d e l f o r e x p la in in g th e v e ry b e g in n in g s o f
sy m b o lic r e p r e s e n ta tio n .
M ig r a in e s u ffe re rs d o n o t n e e d to b e r e m in d e
48. d o f th e f a c t th a t, e v e n in a c o m p le te ly
d a r k e n e d ro o m , a n d w ith th e ir eyes firm ly s h u t,
th e y a re p e r s e c u te d b y fla sh in g lights.
I t is a c o m m o n s y m p to m o f a n a lte re d sta te o f
c o n s c io u s n e s s : th e s e n s a tio n o f b r ig h tn e s s ,
TH E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N
o ften fra m e d in k aleid o sco p ic p a tte rn s - d o ts,
lozenges, blocks, a p p e a rin g in m ultiple
u n its as n etw o rk s, tessellations a n d suchlike. T h e s e p
a tte rn s m ay b e c o n s tru e d as ce rtain
ob jects in th e w o rld - a sp id e r’s w eb, o r a h o n ey co
m b . In a d d itio n , th e su b je ct o f an
altered state o f co n scio u sn ess m ay feel th a t h e o r sh e
is a irb o rn e , o r in w ater, o r p lu n g in g
th ro u g h so m e v o rtex o r tu n n e l. P a tte rn s slide o n e
in to an o th e r, a n d sh ap es are fluently
tra n sfo rm e d ; in so m e h y p n ag o g ic (half-asleep) o r d
rea m in g m o o d s w e m ay see anim als
a p p e ar: to follow S h ak es p ea re’s p h ra sin g , we will th
in k a clo u d to b e v ery like a w hale,
o r m istak e a b u sh fo r a bear.
W h a t ch a racterize s all th e se sen satio n s is h o w vivid
49. they are. T h e n ig h tm a re v ictim
wakes w ith a scream ; th e L S D ad d ic t m a im s h im s elf
terrib ly , co n v in ce d th a t his fingers
are e x te n d in g over th e w indow sill a n d o n to th e ro
a d o utside. N o ex tern al reality is there.
O u r rea c tio n is entirely to w h a t we see w ith o u t an y d
ire c t p e rc e p tio n o f th e w o rld a ro u n d
us. S u c h im ages have b ee n te rm e d as e n to p tic , ‘w ith
in th e eye’.
T h e L ew is-W illiam s h y p o th esis, th e n , is n o t ju s t th
a t P alaeolithic cav e-p ain tin g
w as sh a m an ic o r sh am an istic in origin. I t is even m o re
m o m e n to u s; su g g estin g th a t th e
h u m a n k n ack o f re p rese n tatio n al im ag ery w as
itself initially trig g e re d b y this
n eu ro p sy c h o lo g ic al p ro cess. I n o th e r w o rd s, th e
P alaeolithic p a in te rs w ere n o t m aking
o b se rv a tio n s o f th e w o rld a ro u n d th em ; th e y w
ere tra n s fe rrin g o n to cave walls th e
im ages th e y alread y h a d b e h in d th e ir eyes. T h e y w
ere displaying w h a t h a d co m e to th e m
in an altered state o f co n scio u sn ess; reco llectin g p o w
erfu l visions; try in g to re c a p tu re
w h a t th e y h a d seen in th e ir h allu cin atio n s - even w
50. h e n th ese h ad flash ed by as a series
o f a b s tra c t p a tte rn s {Fig. 14).
T h e ac c e p ta n c e o f this m o d e l d o es n o t re d u c e
all o th e r ca v e-p ain tin g th eo ries to
n o n sen se. I n societies w h ere sh a m an s are o r w ere e s
tee m ed as au th o rities - in c lu d in g n o t
only th e B u s h m en a n d o th e r g ro u p s alread y m e n
tio n e d , b u t also th e In u it o r ‘E sk im o s’
o f C a n a d a , trib es o f A m az o n ia n S o u th A m eric
a, a n d n o m a d ic societies o f S ib eria, w here
th e te rm ‘s h a m a n ’ o rig in ates - sh a m an s claim p o w
er fro m an d over anim als. T h e tran c e
d a n c e o f th e B u s h m en m a y celeb rate a successful h
u n t, o r serve to b rin g g o o d fo rtu n e
to an im m in e n t ex p ed itio n ; eith er way, th e n , a m e a
su re o f ‘h u n tin g m a g ic ’ is im p lied by
th e s h a m a n ’s ce n tral role. F ro m sh a m an ic lore, to o ,
it is ev id en t th a t ce rta in anim als
ca n b e in v ested w ith e x tra o rd in a ry p o w er a n d
significance. (F o r th e B u sh m e n , th e eland
h as su c h special status.) S ib erian sh a m an s w o u ld say
th a t th e ir souls w ere e n tru s te d
to an im al g u a rd ia n s, o r claim som e p e rso n a l fam
iliar o r d a e m o n in fo u r-le g g ed form .
51. 14 A b s tra c t cave m arkings in t h e C u e v a d e la Pileta,
Andalucia, Spain, c ,2 5 ,0 0 0 b c. Such m arkings a re typical
o f e n to p tic
p a tte rn s g e n e r a te d w ithin t h e m ind during an a lte
re d s ta te o f co nsciousness.
T H E BIR TH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
So it m a y b e r ig h t to s u p p o s e t h a t c e r ta in a n
im a ls p o s s e s s sy m b o lic v a lu e , fu ll o f lu c k a n d
fertility , re g a rd le s s o f w h e th e r th e y fe a tu re as re
g u la r prey . B u t c a n w e c la im th a t
s h a m a n s e x is te d in p re h is to ry ?
‘L e t m e te ll y o u h o w I b e c a m e a lio n . I t w as a g
o o d d a n c e se v e ra l y e a rs a g o ...
I fe lt t h e p u ll o f th e fire ... a n d d a n c e d w h ile s ta
r in g a t i t ... I saw th e fire b e c o m e
v e ry la rg e ... I saw a lio n in it. I tr e m b le d w h e n I
lo o k e d a t it. T h e n t h e lio n
o p e n e d its m o u th a n d sw allo w ed m e . T h e n e x t
th in g I r e m e m b e r s e e in g w as th e
lio n s p ittin g o u t a n o t h e r lio n . T h a t o th e r lio n
w as m e . I fe lt th e e n e rg y o f th e lio n
52. a n d r o a r e d w ith g r e a t a u th o rity . T h e p o w e r s
c a r e d th e p e o p le .’
T h e r e c o r d e d e x p e r ie n c e o f a m o d e r n B u s h
m a n s h a m a n w h ile in a n a lte re d s ta te
o f c o n s c io u s n e s s m a y d ire c tly illu m in a te , b y
an a lo g y , se v eral th r e e - d im e n s io n a l im a g e s
d is c o v e re d in th e J u r a r e g io n , t h e m o u n ta in o
u s b o r d e r la n d b e tw e e n S w itz e rla n d
a n d F ra n c e . T h e y e v id e n tly s e rv e d as p e n d a n
ts o r a m u le ts , a n d th e ir f o r m is
t h e r ia n th r o p ic - w ith th e b o d ie s o f h u m a n s a
n d th e h e a d s o f lio n s {Fig. 1 5 ). T h e
m a te r ia l f r o m w h ic h th e y w e re m a d e is o f a n
a n im a l s o u r c e - th e tu s k o f a m a m m o th .
A t th e risk o f b e in g o v e r -fa n c ifu l, w e m ig h t say
th a t th e im a g e s w e re ‘s p a t o u t’ fro m
th e m a m m o th .
A n u m b e r o f cav es c o n ta in p a in tin g s o r e n g ra
v in g s th a t s e e m to s h o w h y b r id s
o f h u m a n s a n d a n im a ls, o r h u m a n fig u re s w ith
a n im a l m a s k s a n d a ttr ib u te s . A t C h a u v e t,
f o r e x a m p le , t h e r e is d e p ic te d a c o m p o s ite c r
e a tu r e m a d e u p o f a b is o n ’s h e a d a n d
b o d y , a n d a p a ir o f h u m a n legs. I s th is s o m e k
53. in d o f m in o t a u r o r, as th e d is c o v e re rs o f th e
c a v e p r e f e r r e d to call it, a s o r c e re r? A b b é B re
u il h a d u s e d th e s a m e te r m f o r a n a n tle r e d ,
f u r r y fig u re w ith h u m a n leg s a n d fe e t a m o n g
th e im a g e s in a r e c e s s o f th e cav e c o m p le x
k n o w n as L e s T r o is F r é r e s , in th e F r e n c h P y
re n e e s . S in c e it is w ell d o c u m e n te d th a t
m u c h s h a m a n ic p r a c tic e w o rld w id e e x p re s s e
s its e lf in ju s t s u c h a n im a l g u is e , th e
t e m p ta tio n to s u p p o s e th a t s h a m a n s o p e r a te
d in P a la e o lith ic E u r o p e is h a r d to resis t.
H a r d to re s is t, a n d h a r d to p ro v e . C o n c e p tu a
lly , h o w e v e r, s h a m a n is m o ffe rs a
p e r s u a s iv e r o u te to w a r d s th e n e u r o p s y c h o
lo g ic a l m o d e l. T h e im a g e o f a lio n - m a n w as
f a s h io n e d b e c a u s e it h a d b e e n v iv id ly im a g
in e d d u r in g a n a lte r e d s ta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s
s .
T h e o n u s is u p o n sc e p tic s to p r o d u c e a m o r e
p la u s ib le a lte rn a tiv e e x p la n a tio n . S o far,
n o n e h a s b e e n fo rth c o m in g .
THE BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N
54. FROM A R T T O AG R IC U LTU R E
T h e c a v e-p ain tin g s a t A lta m ira w ere o n c e
disbelieved b ec au s e th ey se em e d to o ‘ea rly ’.
In tu r n , arch aeo lo g ists w h o a c c e p te d th e earlin ess
o f su c h c a v e-p ain tin g s w ere faced w ith
a p ro b le m o f su ccessio n . In E u ro p e , a t least, th e p
ra c tic e o f p a in tin g in caves a p p a re n tly
ca m e to an en d a b o u t 1 2 ,0 0 0 years ago. We know th
a t th e em e rg e n c e , several th o u s a n d
y ears la ter, o f th e g re a t civilizations in E g y p t, M e s o p
o ta m ia a n d th e In d u s Valley, w as
ac co m p an ie d by an increasing use of, even reliance u p o n
, th e sym bolic reso u rce o f images:
th is b o o k m akes f u rth e r refe re n c e to th a t p ro c e ss
in d u e co u rse (see, fo r ex am p le,
p a g e 6 1 ). B u t in th e m e a n tim e , w h at h a p p e n e d
to th e h u m a n ability to create im ages?
U n til recen tly , th e re w as n o sa tisfac to ry an sw er to th
a t q u es tio n . I t w as possible,
a d m itte d ly , to claim th a t in so m e p a r ts o f th e w o
rld - n o ta b ly A u stralia - the h ab its
o f r e p re s e n ta tio n th a t c o m m e n c e d a b o u t 4 0 ,0
0 0 years ago n ev er lapsed. B u t this w as
im p o ssib le to prove. In te rm s o f arch aeo lo g ically
55. stratified ev id en c e, a d efin ite gap
ex iste d , b e tw e e n th e e n d o f th e O ld S to n e A ge
(th e P alaeolithic) a n d th e early p h as es
o f th e N e w S to n e A ge (th e N e o lith ic ). T h e n a ce
rta in h illto p in s o u th e rn T u rk e y
d isclo sed its secret.
T h e T u r k is h - K u rd is h to w n o f U rfa (o r S an liu rfa
), n e a r th e S y ria n b o rd e r, is
to u ristically b illed as ‘h isto ric ’. H e re A b ra h a m , th e
p a tria rc h o f th e se co n d m illen n iu m BC,
v e n e rate d by Jew s, C h ristia n s a n d M u slim s alike, is
s u p p o s e d to have s o jo u rn e d o n his
w ay fro m th e city o f U r to th e la n d o f C a n a a n . B
u t it n o w tra n sp ire s th a t religious
activity a ro u n d U rfa p re -d a te s A b ra h a m by th o u s
a n d s o f years.
A n arch aeo lo g ical s u rv e y in th e 19 6 0 s o b se rv e d in
th e hills a ro u n d U rfa a p a rtic u la r
site w h e re several knolls o f re d d is h e a rth aro se fro m
a lim esto n e p lateau . T h e s e knolls,
a n d th e rocky are a nearb y , w ere co v ered in th e d eb ris
o f flin t-k n a p p in g - th e flakes
a n d ch ip s o f flint left by th e p re h is to ric m a n u fa c
tu re o f to o ls an d w eap o n s. S o m e large
56. m a n -m a d e slabs o f sto n e w ere also n o tic e d , b u t a s
s u m e d to be o f m u c h la ter d ate th a n
th e N eo lith ic d eb ris. N o f u r th e r in v estig atio n w
as c a rrie d o u t u n til 1 9 94, w h e n K lau s
S c h m id t o f th e G e r m a n A rc h ae o lo g ic al In stitu
te visited th e site a n d estab lish ed th a t th e
knolls w ere n o t n a tu ra l, b u t p a r t o f an artificial hill, h
e a p e d as a p r o m in e n t m a rk in the
local lan d scap e. W ith ex p e rien c e o f o th e r sites in this
a n c ie n t area o f U p p e r M e so p o tam ia,
S c h m id t w as im m ed iately able to classify th e site as a
tepe o r m o u n d , d atab le to th e early
N eo lith ic p h a s e b efo re the u se o f ce ram ic s (so m etim
e s re fe rre d to as th e P re -P o tte ry
15 A lion-m an s ta tu e tte fro m H o h lestein -S tad el, s o u
th w e s t G erm any,
c . 3 2 - 3 0 ,0 0 0 b c, possibly u se d as a p e n d a n t o r a
n am ulet.
16 (to p ) A erial view o f a s to n e circle a t G ó b ek liT ep
e, Turkey, c .9 0 0 0 bc.
17 (ab o v e) Animal detail - p ro b ab ly a fox - from G
óbekli T epe.
57. TH E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
N eo lith ic ). H e also s u sp e c te d th a t th e lim e sto n e
slabs o n this hill - h e n c e fo rth k n o w n
as G o b e k liT e p e - b elo n g ed to so m e larg e p re h is
to ric s tru c tu re .
D ig g in g in to th e m o u n d n o t o n ly c o n firm e d S c
h m id t’s in tu itio n s, b u t revealed
a d im e n sio n o f P re -P o tte ry N e o lith ic th a t n o o n
e e x p e cted .
T h e ex cav atio n s a t G o b e k liT e p e are o n g o in g , w
ith sc o p e fo r m o re su rp rises.
W h a t h as c o m e to lig h t so fa r is a series o f w alled e n
c lo su res , o f w h ich a b o u t 20 are
b u ilt a r o u n d m assive s to n e p illars se t in a circle (Fig.
16). T w o se p a ra te p illars o c c u p y th e
ce n tre s o f th e se circles. E a c h o f th e p illars is fa sh io
n e d o u t o f solid ro ck in to a T -s h ap e
a b o u t 7 m e tre s (2 3 feet) tall. R e c ta n g u la r c a rv e d
d o o rw ay s o n c e p ro v id e d m a rk e d
o r tu n n e lle d access to th e e n c lo su res, a n d in th e
flo o r o f o n e circle a sm all in se t b asin
h as b e e n fo u n d , w ith a n a tta c h e d c h a n n e l -
58. possibly, as th e ex c av a to r su g g ests, fo r th e
co llec tio n o f b lo o d . F o o d w as c o n s u m e d h e re ,
as in d ic a te d b y m a n y a n im al b o n es,
b u t n o w h e re o n th e hillsid e a re th e re sig n s o f d o
m e stic h ab ita tio n . S o this w as n o t, it
seem s, a p la ce w h ere p e o p le lived, b u t r a th e r a sp
ecial assem b ly p o in t - so m e k in d
o f s a n c tu a ry in th e m o u n ta in s th a t a ttr a c te d p
e o p le fro m a ra d iu s o f se ttle m en ts som e
80 k ilo m etres (5 0 m iles) o r f u rth e r afield.
L ik e o th e r p re h is to ric m o n u m e n ts , su c h as S to n
e h e n g e in B rita in a n d th e m e n h irs
o f F ra n c e , G ó b ek li T ep e re ta in s a n e n ig m atic sen
se o f u n f a th o m e d ritu a l significance.
B u t n o t o n ly is it m u c h ea rlier th a n S to n e h e n g e
- b y 7 0 0 0 y ears - it is also m u c h
d iffe re n t in o n e key r e s p e c t.T h e w e ll-trim m e d p
illars o f G o b e k liT e p e are n o t ju st
m eg alith s (b ig s to n e s ). T h e y a re decorated - em b
ellish ed w ith im ag es eith e r en g ra v ed on
to th e su rfa c e o r else p ic k e d o u t in shallow relief
(Fig. 17).
I t m a y c o m e as n o s u rp ris e th a t th e p rin c ip a l su b
je cts o f th is d e c o ra tio n are , o n ce
59. ag ain , an im als. F oxes a n d snakes d o m in a te th e r e p e
rto ire , b u t gazelle, a u ro c h s, w ild
b o a r, w ild ass, cra n es a n d a lio n also fea tu re . S p id e
rs , to o , a re sh o w n . In a d d itio n o ne
b lo c k ca rrie s th e im age o f a w o m a n s q u a ttin g in
a sex u al p o s tu re , th o u g h this m ay be
o f la ter date.
T h e p illars th em selv es a p p e a r sch em atically a n th ro
p o m o rp h ic o r h u m a n -s h a p e d ,
th e sh a ft sta n d in g f o r legs a n d to rso , th e T -b a r e
q u a tin g to sh o u ld e rs a n d h ea d . C a rv e d
a rm s a re a d d e d to o ne o f th e m , as if to c o n firm th
e in te n tio n . T h is in tu r n en c o u rag es th e
p r e s u m p tio n th a t th e im ag es serv e to h a rn e ss fo
rm s o f w ildlife w h o se p o w e r b elo n g s to
th e se p illar-fig u res, o r p e rh a p s p ro te c ts th e m . T h
e foxes b a re th e ir te e th , th e tu sk s o f th e
b o a r are p ro n o u n c e d , a n d th e snakes h av e b e e n
id e n tified as v e n o m -lo a d e d vipers.
T H E BIR TH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
T h e p o ssib ility th a t th e d e c o r a tio n o f th e p illars
a t G o b e k liT e p e is s h a m a n ic has
60. b e e n se rio u s ly c o n s id e r e d b y th e e x c a v a to rs.
B u t, as th e y p o in t o u t, th e scale o f
s tr u c tu r a l e n te r p ris e a t th is site p o in ts to a so c ie
ty in w h ic h ritu a l w as m e d ia te d n o t so
m u c h by s h a m a n s as b y ‘tr u e p r ie s ts ’. T h e im a
g es, a f te r all, w ere th e u ltim a te p h a s e ,
o r fin is h in g to u c h e s a t le ast, to w h a t h a d b e e n
a m a ssiv e co llec tiv e e ffo rt. A t a sm all
d is ta n c e aw ay f r o m th e m a in ‘te m p le ’ a re a is th
e n a tu ra l lim e s to n e a m p h ith e a tr e fro m
w h ic h d ie p illa rs w ere q u a r r ie d . In th e u p p e r r e
a c h e s o f th is q u a r r y th e re is a m a rk e d
c a v ity le ft by th e re m o v a l o f o n e T -s h a p e d p
illa r m u c h la rg e r th a n a n y so fa r b r o u g h t
to lig h t a t th e site; a n d r ig h t n e x t to th is s p a c e is
a s to n e o f sim ila r size a b a n d o n e d
in a c ra c k e d a n d th e re fo r e u n f in is h e d sta te . H
a d it b e e n s u c c e ssfu lly re m o v e d f ro m th e
b e d ro c k , it w o u ld h av e m e a s u r e d s o m e 6 m e tre
s (2 0 f e e t), a n d w e ig h e d a b o u t 5 0 to n n e s.
T o s h ift it a c ro ss to d ie m o u n d w o u ld h av e r e q
u ir e d th e c o m b in e d tr a c tio n p o w e r o f
a b o u t 5 0 0 p e o p le .
61. G iv e n th a t th e m o u n d its e lf is m a n - m a d e , b u ilt
f ro m th o u s a n d s o f to n n e s o f e a r th
a n d r o c k b r o u g h t u p f ro m th e p la in b elo w , w e
a re b o u n d to s p e c u la te th a t th e m e a s u r e o f
h u m a n o rg a n iz a tio n r e q u ir e d to b u ild G ó b e k
li T e p e w as so m e w ay to w a rd s th a t re q u ir e d
to b u ild th e E g y p tia n p y ra m id s . G ó b e k li T e p e
, in th e w o rd s o f its e x c a v a to rs , th e re fo re
s ta n d s a t ‘d ie d a w n o f a n e w w o rld , a w o rld w
ith p o w e rfu l r u le r s a n d a c o m p le x , stratified ,
h ie ra rc h ic a l so c ie ty ’.
S o tiiis is a m a jo r rev e la tio n f r o m c u r r e n t a rc h a
e o lo g y ; a n d u n lik e d ie firs t ‘re v e a l’
o f A lta m ira , it c a u s e s tr u e w o n d e r , n o t d isb e
lie f. A n d f o r th o s e w h o like to r e g a rd a r t
a s a n o p tio n a l lu x u r y in life, a p a s tim e to b e in d
u lg e d o n ly w h e n th e n e c e s s a r y b u sin e ss
o f su rv iv a l a n d s u b s is te n c e h a s b e e n c o m p le
te d , G ó b e k li T e p e o ffe rs a p a r tic u la r
ch a lle n g e - w ith w h ic h w e sh a ll c o n c lu d e .
F o r m o r e th a n h a lf a c e n tu r y , a r c h a e o lo g is ts
h av e a g r e e d th a t f a rm in g - th e k e e p in g
o f d o m e s tic a te d a n im a ls a n d th e c u ltiv a tio n o
f c r o p s - b e g a n in th e N e a r E a s t d u r in g th e
62. ea rly N e o lith ic p e r io d , c. 9 0 0 0 b c . S h e e p a n d
g o a ts w ere th e p r in c ip a l a n im a ls fe a tu rin g
in th is a g ric u ltu r a l r e v o lu tio n , w h ile w h e a t a n d
b a rle y w ere th e p r in c ip a l c ro p s . K e y sites
p ro v id in g e v id e n c e fo r a n im a l e n c lo s u re s a n d
d o m e s tic a te d g ra in s in c lu d e J a rm o , in
n o r th e r n Ira q ; Q a ta lh o y ü k , in w e s te r n T u rk e y
; a n d J e ric h o , in P a le stin e . T h e J o r d a n valley
a n d th e r e a c h e s o f U p p e r M e s o p o ta m ia h a v
e also y ie ld e d sp e cific clu es r e g a rd in g th e
tr a n s itio n f ro m n o m a d ic h u n tin g a n d g a th e r in
g to se ttle d fa rm in g . T h e d e b a te th e n a rise s
a b o u t w h ic h c a m e first: a d e m o g r a p h ic s h ift to
s e ttle d c o m m u n itie s , le a d in g to a re lia n c e
T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N
u p o n f a r m in g f o r f o o d , o r th e in te n s iv e e x p
lo ita tio n o f c e r ta in liv e sto c k a n d ce reals,
le a d in g to s e ttle d c o m m u n itie s ?
I n th e b o o k o f G e n e s is , th e c h a n g e o c c u r s
as a d ir e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e e x p u ls io n
o f A d a m a n d E v e f r o m th e G a r d e n o f E d e n .
T h e s o n s o f A d a m a n d E v e, C a in a n d A b e l,
63. a re sp e c ifie d as a tiller o f th e soil a n d a s h e p h e r d
resp e c tiv e ly , fu lfillin g G o d ’s e d ic t th a t
m o r ta ls s h o u ld h e n c e f o r th s u rv iv e ‘b y th e sw
ea t o f th e ir b r o w ’. G o b e k liT e p e raise s a n
a lte rn a tiv e p o s s ib ility - th a t w h a t in s tig a te d th e
firs t p r o d u c ti o n o f fo o d w a s a rt.
A b o u t 3 0 k ilo m e tre s (2 0 m ile s) s o u th f r o m G ó
b e k li T e p e lies th e K a r a c a d a g ra n g e .
R e s e a rc h a m o n g th e s e hills h a s s h o w n th a t th
e y a re h o m e to th e c lo s e s t w ild re la tiv e o f a n
ea rly sp e c ie s o f d o m e s tic a te d g r a in , e in k o rn
w h e a t. T h e s u g g e s tio n is t h a t w ild g r a in w as
b r o u g h t f ro m th e K a r a c a d a g , a n d c u ltiv a te d
a r o u n d G ó b e k li T e p e in o r d e r to f e e d all th e
h u n d r e d s o f p e o p le b u ild in g o r sim p ly f r e q u
e n tin g th e site.
S o th e re is th e m o m e n to u s c o n c lu s io n : th a t s o
m e 1 1 ,0 0 0 y e a rs a g o im a g e r y h a d
b e c o m e so p o w e rfu l in th e m in d s o f h u m a n b e
in g s th a t it h e lp e d to b r in g a b o u t th e
g r e a te s t tr a n s f o r m a tio n in h u m a n h isto ry .