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Syntax.english 12
This document provides an overview of syntax and its key concepts. It discusses what syntax is, types of grammar, generative grammar, deep and surface structure, structural ambiguity, tree diagrams, symbols used in syntactic analysis, phrase structure rules, lexical rules, transformational rules, complement phrases, and recursion. The core concepts covered include how syntax studies word and sentence arrangements, generative grammar aims to generate all grammatical sentences, deep and surface structure represent underlying and surface levels, and transformational rules convert structures between declarative and interrogative forms.
Syntax.english 12
- 1. Syntax Report by: Aileen F.Nicasio
- 2. Contents • What issyntax? • What is Grammar and its types? • What is Generative Grammar? • Deep and Surface Structure • Structural Ambiguity • Tree Diagram • Symbols used in Syntactic Analysis • Phrase structural rules • Lexical rules • Transformational rules • Complement phrase • Recursion
- 3. What is Syntax? Theword ‘syntax’ has been derived from the Greek word syntaxis literally means “a putting together” or “arrangement” It implies the way in which words are arranged so as to reveal relationships of meanings within sentences and often between them. It studies combinations of words including word-structure and sentence-structure.
- 4. What is Grammar? Grammaris a word that confuses considerably. It has been approached and defined differently by different scholars and schools of linguistics. Etymologically, the term Grammar goes back (through French & Latin) to Greek word Grammatika or Grammatkia which may be translated as the art of ‘writing’. But for a long time, this term has been used very closely to incorporate the whole study of language.
- 5. Types of Grammar Prominenttypes of grammar are discussed below: • Traditional Grammar • Prescriptive Grammar • Descriptive Grammar • Sentence-Interpretative Grammar • Sentence-Producing Grammar • Reference Grammar • Contrastive Grammar • Theoretical Grammar • Structural Grammar • Phrase-Structure Grammar • Generative Grammar • Transformational Grammar • Stratificational Grammar • Communicative Grammar
- 6. Generative Grammar Generative Grammaris a grammar in which a set of formal rules are used to generate or define the membership of an infinite set of grammatical sentences in a language. Instead of analyzing a single sentence, this grammar devises a set of rules of construction that may help in generating sentences or structures in an infinitely large number. This grammar attempts to produce all and only grammatical sentences of language. (all and only means that our analysis must account for all the grammatical correct phrases and sentences and only those grammatical correct phrases and sentences in whatever language we are analyzing.) We have a rule such as “a prepositional phrase in English consists of a preposition followed by a noun phrase”. We can produce a large number of (infinite) phrase using this rule. e.g. in the zoo, on the table, near the window
- 7. Deep and SurfaceStructure • Charlie broke the window. (Active Voice) • The window was broken by Charlie. (Passive Voice) Some linguists, in particular Noam Chomsky, have tried to account for this similarity by positing that these two sentences are distinct (different) surface forms that derive from a common deep structure.
- 8. Deep and SurfaceStructure • Charlie broke the window. (Active Voice) • The window was broken by Charlie. (Passive Voice) The distinction between them is a difference in their surface structure. They have different syntactic forms of individual sentence. This superficial difference is called surface structure.
- 9. Deep and SurfaceStructure The sentences can have deep structure like this: • It was Charlie who broke the window. • Was the window broken by Charlie? This ‘underlying’ level, where the basic components (noun phrase + verb + noun phrase) shared by two sentences can be represented, is called deep structure. The deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented.
- 10. Structural Ambiguity • Anniebumped into a man with an umbrella. • Small boys and girls are playing hide and seek. Explanation can show in the first sentence two ideas: i. Annie had an umbrella and she bumped into a man. ii. Annie bumped into a man when he happened to be carrying an umbrella. Explanation can show in the first sentence two ideas: i. Small boys are playing with young girls. ii. Small boys and all girls are playing. Distinct underlying interpretations that have to be represented differently in deep structure is called Structural Ambiguity.
- 11. Tree Diagram • Atree diagram is a way of representing the hierarchical nature of a structure in a graphical form. It is named a "tree diagram” because the classic representation resembles a tree, even though the chart is generally upside down compared to an actual tree, with the "root" at the top and the "leaves" at the bottom. • Tree diagram provides us visual representation of the constituents of the corresponding expression.
- 12. Tree Diagram • E.g.A child can kick a football. A child can kick footballa S NP Aux VP N V NPArt NArt
- 13. Symbols used inTree Diagram • S - Sentence • NP- Noun Phrase • PN- Proper Noun • N-Noun • VP-Verb Phrase • Adv-Adverb • V-Verb • Adj-Adjective • Prep-Preposition • Art-Article • Pro-Pronoun • PP-Prepositional Phrase • * Ungrammatical Sentence • Consists of / rewrites as • ( ) Optional Constituent • { } Only one of these constituents must be selected
- 14. Phrase Structure Rules Thissecond approach is very appealing because it would enable us to generate a very large number of sentences with what look like a very small number of rules. These rules called phrase structure rules. As the name suggests, these rules state that the structure of a phrase of a specific type will consist of one or more constituents in a particular order.
- 15. Phrase Structure Rules •TP/S • NP VP • NP • {Art (Adj+) N, Pro, PN} • VP • V NP (PP) (Adv) • PP • P NP Tree Diagrams S NP VP NP Art N VP V NP PP P NP Phrase structure rules generate structures.
- 16. Lexical Rules As weknow, phrase structure rules generate structures. To turn those structures into recognizable English, we also need lexical rules that specify which words can be used when we rewrite constituents such as N. • PN • { Mary, George } • N • { Girl, Dog, Boy } • Pro • { It, you, he } • Art • { A, An, the } • V • { Help, run, play } We can rely on these rules to generate the grammatical sentences but not ungrammatical sentences.
- 17. Transformational rules It iseasy to represent Declarative forms in tree diagrams. e.g. You will help Mary. S NP Aux VP Pro V NP You will help Mary S NP Aux VP
- 18. Transformational rules It iseasy to represent Declarative forms in tree diagrams. e.g. You will help Mary. BUT HOW CAN YOU REPRESENT THIS ONE? Will you help Mary?
- 19. Transformational rules Simply Willyou help Mary? S NPAux VP Pro V NP youWill help Mary S Aux NP VP
- 20. Transformational rules You willhelp Mary. Will you help Mary? S NP Aux VP Pro V NP You will help Mary S NP Aux VP S NPAux VP Pro V NP youWill help Mary S Aux NP VP
- 21. Recursion Notice these: • Maryhelped George. • Cathy knew that Mary helped George. • John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George. The rules of grammar will also need the crucial property of recursion. In this, we can put sentences inside other sentences and these sentences can be generated inside another sentences.
- 22. Complement Phrase • Maryhelped George. • Cathy knew that Mary helped George. • John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George. Traditionally, such sentences are called clauses (that-clause) In the above examples, that is called complementizer (C). We can say that sentences with that are Complement Phrase (CP). Complement Phrase Rule S NP VP VP V CP CP C S
- 23. Complement Phrase John believedthat Cathy knew that Mary helped George. S NP VP V CP C S NP VP V CP C S NP VP PN PN PN V NP PN John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.
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