SYNAPSE GENISIS.pptx
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The present slide describes what is synapses and how it originates in neurons in the brain. The genesis of synapses is described.
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5Physical DevelopmentNovastockPhotolibraryGetty Images.docx
5Physical Development
Novastock/Photolibrary/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
ሁ Describe changes in body and brain structure from birth through adolescence.
ሁ Detail the process of nerve function and how neurons transmit signals.
ሁ Provide behavioral examples that demonstrate how the brain is organized.
ሁ Outline major milestones in motor development.
ሁ Clarify important issues related to toilet training.
ሁ Identify warning signs of various physical disabilities that may first appear in early childhood.
ሁ Describe physical changes that take place during puberty, including historical and cultural trends,
and the differential impact on males and females.
Section 5.1General Patterns of Growth
Prologue
Among infants and young children, tremendous changes occur in every domain of develop-
ment. However, none are more apparent than the physical changes. When new parents talk
about their baby’s growth, the first thing that usually comes to mind is height, weight, and
motor activity. Imaging devices now allow us to track coinciding changes in brain tissue. We
can conclusively differentiate between a male brain and a female brain—even at birth. Though
we are far from making predictions about physical development based on brain scans, we can
predict some effects of deprivation. For instance, malnutrition can have far-reaching conse-
quences, extending into physical, cognitive, and even psychosocial domains.
Quite unlike other animal species, human infants are virtually helpless at birth. Babies can
eat only if a nipple is provided; they cannot move objects out of the way or closer; and for the
most part they cannot manipulate the physical structure of the environment. Initially they
do not even have the muscle strength needed to hold up their heads. It is only with adult
assistance that infants can survive and eventually optimize growth. Technology and scien-
tific advancement have allowed us to better understand how we transition from completely
dependent beings into adolescents who are perfectly capable of walking away from their par-
ents. This module focuses on those physical developments.
5.1 General Patterns of Growth
Though parents do not often notice, the heads of infants are disproportionately large com-
pared to the rest of their bodies. On their way to adult proportions, the torso and limbs grow
faster than the head. This pattern of growth is an example of directionality, one of the gen-
eral principles of human growth. In this case, the direction is
cephalocaudal, literally meaning “head to tail.” At birth not
only is the head more developed physically than the rest of
the body, but also vision and hearing precede growth of the
limbs. That is, babies begin to focus their eyes on what they
hear well before they begin walking or perform coordinated
hand movements.
Physical growth also occurs in a proximodistal pattern—
from the inside out. In the prenat ...
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Brain-Based Learning
The document discusses how brain-based learning has replaced behavioral psychology due to new technologies like MRI, EEG, and PET scans. It explains that learning forms connections in the brain through concrete experiences rather than just reading. It also outlines how the brain develops through overproduction and pruning of synapses during critical periods, and how risky behavior during adolescence can both help and hinder frontal cortex development.
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LW: Neuroscience Myths & neuroplasticity
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All rights Reserved, Dan Ofer.
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The document discusses neuroplasticity and auditory processing disorder (APD). It summarizes that neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and rewire itself based on experiences. Early studies found brain maps could change in response to damage or skill learning. APD refers to difficulties processing auditory information in less than optimal environments and may be associated with language or learning issues. Identification involves behavioral and electrophysiological tests, and risks include certain birth factors or brain injuries. Management may involve therapies to strengthen auditory processing skills.
Stammering
Stammering affects around 70 million people worldwide, cutting across all boundaries. Every language has a word for it: begaiement (French), tartamudez (Spanish), hakalaanaa (Hindi), hau hick (Cantonese), domori (Japanese), nsu (Nigerian Ibo).Many illstrious people from King George VI to Winston Churchil have been its sufferer. Stuttering has been an excuse for mockery, prejudice and misguided 'cures'. At last lot of research are on to find its exact reason and treatment.
5Physical DevelopmentNovastockPhotolibraryGetty Images.docx
5Physical Development
Novastock/Photolibrary/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
ሁ Describe changes in body and brain structure from birth through adolescence.
ሁ Detail the process of nerve function and how neurons transmit signals.
ሁ Provide behavioral examples that demonstrate how the brain is organized.
ሁ Outline major milestones in motor development.
ሁ Clarify important issues related to toilet training.
ሁ Identify warning signs of various physical disabilities that may first appear in early childhood.
ሁ Describe physical changes that take place during puberty, including historical and cultural trends,
and the differential impact on males and females.
Section 5.1General Patterns of Growth
Prologue
Among infants and young children, tremendous changes occur in every domain of develop-
ment. However, none are more apparent than the physical changes. When new parents talk
about their baby’s growth, the first thing that usually comes to mind is height, weight, and
motor activity. Imaging devices now allow us to track coinciding changes in brain tissue. We
can conclusively differentiate between a male brain and a female brain—even at birth. Though
we are far from making predictions about physical development based on brain scans, we can
predict some effects of deprivation. For instance, malnutrition can have far-reaching conse-
quences, extending into physical, cognitive, and even psychosocial domains.
Quite unlike other animal species, human infants are virtually helpless at birth. Babies can
eat only if a nipple is provided; they cannot move objects out of the way or closer; and for the
most part they cannot manipulate the physical structure of the environment. Initially they
do not even have the muscle strength needed to hold up their heads. It is only with adult
assistance that infants can survive and eventually optimize growth. Technology and scien-
tific advancement have allowed us to better understand how we transition from completely
dependent beings into adolescents who are perfectly capable of walking away from their par-
ents. This module focuses on those physical developments.
5.1 General Patterns of Growth
Though parents do not often notice, the heads of infants are disproportionately large com-
pared to the rest of their bodies. On their way to adult proportions, the torso and limbs grow
faster than the head. This pattern of growth is an example of directionality, one of the gen-
eral principles of human growth. In this case, the direction is
cephalocaudal, literally meaning “head to tail.” At birth not
only is the head more developed physically than the rest of
the body, but also vision and hearing precede growth of the
limbs. That is, babies begin to focus their eyes on what they
hear well before they begin walking or perform coordinated
hand movements.
Physical growth also occurs in a proximodistal pattern—
from the inside out. In the prenat ...
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Brain size or encephalization
Does size matter?
-Einstein had an average sized brain and we can certainly say that made little difference.
-Mozart was a microcephalic. A genetic disorder that usually means mental deficiencies.
-Modern male humans have approximately 10% larger brains than do female humans…and we all know that means nothing.
Hominid Brain Evolution
-Encephalization or the measure of brain size relative to body size
-Notice the changes in the brain organization in the images from A. africanus where the brain is located behind the eyes and remains there until Homo sapiens, even in Neandertals, who happen to have a larger brain, the frontal lobe is relatively small compared to humans.
Why the Hominid Brain Enlarged
The Radiator Hypothesis:
-brain= 25 of body mass
-brain =uses 25% of O2
-brain uses 70% of glucose
Higher energy metabolism produces higher heat production. Therefore, brain size is limited by the Ability of the organism to cool the brain. Hominids have more diffuse blood flow through passages through the skull than do Australopithecines.
Brain/Body Mass Ratio
Largest brains found in the largest animals ) Elephant and Blue Whale
Overall, mammals have larger brains per body mass. Modern humans are at the apex of brain mass to body mass ration
Human brain = 2.3% of body weight
Elephant brain = 0.2% of body weight
Here you see the gradual increase in brain volume over time. Notice the incredible jump in the last million years.
With the increase in brain size, reorganization and particularly the development of the prefrontal region and neocortex also came culture.
Brain Reorganization
Olfactory bulbs
Prefrontal region
Primary Visual Regions
Neocortex
Reorganization and reduction in the olfactory bulbs resulted in the decrease in the sense of smell. This trend started in the early primate radiation with the reduction in the snout and wet nose.
Large prefrontal region
The prefrontal region is the area for forming goals and making plans…imagine going to 2 minutes without thinking of the future.
Why do humans have an expanded visual cortex?
The primary visual cortex is the area where sensory information from various sources is processed and synthesized.
The expanded visual cortex is an “ancestral” characteristic.
Why do primates have a neocortex?
…because all primates are mammals.
The neocortex occupies a larger proportion of the brain volume in humans than it does in any other species.
The neocortex is an “ancestral” characteristic. Meaning that it is a feature that has been around a long time.
The Neocortex
Neocortex is divided into four lobes that process different types of information:
Frontal lobe: assimilates information relayed from “lower” brain areas concerned with movement. Plans and executes complex movements. Also an integral part of personality.
Parietal lobe: higher processing of sensory information from other brain areas and the spinal cord. Orientation in 3-dimensional space. P.
Brain plasticity
The brain undergoes significant development and changes throughout life. In early childhood, the brain rapidly forms new connections, with trillions of synapses forming by age 3. During childhood, synaptic pruning occurs, removing unused connections. Experience and environment influence which connections are strengthened and retained. Early childhood experiences are particularly important for brain development. Brain plasticity allows the brain to adapt and recover from injury through mechanisms like remapping of functions. Early intervention programs provide therapeutic support and aim to maximize development for children with disabilities or delays.
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1) Early hominid fossils date back around 3.7 million years ago in Tanzania belonging to Australopithecus, a small-brained bipedal species that later diversified and may have given rise to the genus Homo.
2) According to Paul MacLean's triune brain theory, the human brain evolved in three stages - the reptilian brain, old limbic system, and newer neocortex - with each newer section building upon the previous ones.
3) Genetic evidence suggests that genes related to brain development evolved more rapidly in human lineages compared to other primates or mammals, indicating strong natural selection for increased brain size and complexity unique to humans.
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-Modern male humans have approximately 10% larger brains than do female humans…and we all know that means nothing.
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-Encephalization or the measure of brain size relative to body size
-Notice the changes in the brain organization in the images from A. africanus where the brain is located behind the eyes and remains there until Homo sapiens, even in Neandertals, who happen to have a larger brain, the frontal lobe is relatively small compared to humans.
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With the increase in brain size, reorganization and particularly the development of the prefrontal region and neocortex also came culture.
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The primary visual cortex is the area where sensory information from various sources is processed and synthesized.
The expanded visual cortex is an “ancestral” characteristic.
Why do primates have a neocortex?
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The neocortex is an “ancestral” characteristic. Meaning that it is a feature that has been around a long time.
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SYNAPSE GENISIS.pptx
- 1. B Y D R . S . J E R S L I N SYNAPSE GENISIS
- 2. Definition The word can definitely be long and intimidating(frighten to say something), but let's break it down into more manageable pieces. The two root words are synapse and genesis. Synapses are connections between nerve cells, and genesis means the beginning or start of something. The combination of synapse and genesis becomes the creation of connections between nerve cells in the brain, or neurons. This occurs in all animals with a brain, but is particularly pronounced(definitely told) in humans. Although synaptogenesis happens to some degree throughout a human's lifetime, there are periods where it happens much faster than others.
- 3. Con… This occurs in all animals with a brain, but is particularly pronounced(definitely told) in humans. Although synaptogenesis happens to some degree throughout a human's lifetime, there are periods where it happens much faster than others.
- 4. Brain Growth Lessons When it comes to brains, bigger isn't always better. Albert Einstein had a brain that was perfectly normal as far as size goes, but his thoughts produced one of most astounding scientific breakthroughs of the 20th century. As far as we can tell, intelligence comes from the number of connections between brain cells, not the number of brain cells themselves.
- 5. Con… At about week 12 of a pregnancy, a human fetus starts to undergo a tremendous growth in the number of synapses in the brain. This period is known as exuberant synaptogenesis and lasts roughly until eight or nine months after birth. The number of synapses that are created in this time is mostly determined by the genetics of the individual.
- 6. Growth in Later Life Brain researchers have also found a second period of rapid synaptogenesis in humans: adolescence. It's not as dramatic as exuberant synaptogenesis, but there are many more synapses being created at this time than there are later in life. Does this mean that intelligence is determined only by our nature? If there is a trauma in this period, is intelligence impacted negatively? It turns out that these rather logical assumptions are false.
- 7. Con… Genetics plays a large role in synapse creation, but the environment plays a bigger role in which synapses are kept. This is part of the plasticity of the brain - its ability to change in response to different external and internal stimuli. For example, human babies are born with the ability to learn any of the 6,000 or so languages currently spoken on our planet, or in the case of some twins, invent new languages. However, most people will only ever use one or two languages fluently. Where does the potential for the other languages go?