STYLISTICS and LITERARY TECHNIQUES MODULE HANDOUT.doc

KIBOGORA POLYTECHNIC
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGES
COURSE CODE: E285
COURSE TITLE: STYLISTICS AND LITERARY TECHNIQUES
Level 2 English –Kinyarwanda/Kiswahili/French
Lecturer: Dr. Ben Alexandre MPOZEMBIZI, PhD
STYLISTICS AND LITERARY TECHNIQUES MODULE COMPILED BY Dr.Ben Alexandre M Page 1

A/Y: 2020-2021
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this course is to introduce you to the theory and practice of stylistics and literary
techniques. It is structured into four modules:
Module 1 which is entitled “Style and Stylistics” provides you with background lectures on the
concepts of style and stylistics, the nature and goals of stylistics as well as types of stylistics.
Module 2 entitled “Levels of Linguistic Analysis” takes you through the essential levels of
linguistic description of a text. These include the phono- graphological, the syntactic and the lexico-
semantic levels. It also introduces you to cohesion and coherence as well as foregrounding.
The title of Module 3 is “Basic Genres of Literature and their Elements”. This is where you will
learn about forms of literature, elements of prose, elements of poetry and elements of drama. Besides,
you are introduced to the main features of the language of literature- prose, poetry and drama, as well
as the elements of register.
In Module 4, which bears the title “Sample Textual Analyses”, you will be exposed to some
practical guides in doing a stylistic analysis of prose, poetry and drama. The guides provided here are
not exhaustive but they are adequate to stimulate your interest in carrying out a purposeful stylistic
analysis of a text.
COURSE AIM
The general aim of this course is to equip you with the knowledge and skills needed to undertake a
meaningful stylistic analysis of any text, especially a literary text. It aims at making you an informed
reader/ analyst of a (literary) text.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
Each unit in the course contains some specific objectives which should guide you. At the end of this
course, you should be able to:

 Define style and stylistics
 Identify and explain some perspectives on style
 Identify and explain some types of stylistics
 Mention and describe the major levels of linguistic description of a text
 List the basic genres of literature
 Discuss the elements of each basic genre of literature
 Distinguish between cohesion and coherence
 Explain what foregrounding entails
 Describe the register of a text
 Identify and discuss the point(s) of view adopted in a text and
 Carry out a meaningful stylistic analysis of a text (especially a literary text).
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE
As mentioned earlier, the course contains four modules which blend theory with practice in the
field of stylistics as a major area of language and literature studies. You should painstakingly go
through all the units in this course, taking note of the essential concepts introduced to you. You
should also do the Self-Assessment Exercises and the Tutor-Marked Assignments. For you to
derive maximum benefit fromthe course,you should consult as many of the
references/ suggestions for further reading given at the end of each unit.
COURSE MATERIALS
Your course materials include the study units in the course, the recommended textbooks and the
exercises/assignments provided in each unit.
COURSE OVERVIEW
Unit Title of Work
Module 1 Style And Stylistics
1 The Concepts of Style and Stylistics
2 Goals and features of Stylistics
3 Types of Stylistics (i)

Module 2 Levels Of Linguistic Analysis
1 Levels of Linguistic Analysis (i) (The Phono-graphological Level)
2 Levels of Linguistic Analysis (ii) (The Lexico-Semantic Level)
3 Levels of Linguistic Analysis (iii) (The Syntactic Level)
4 Cohesion and Coherence
5 Foregrounding
Module 3 Basic Genres Of Literature And Their Elements
1 Forms of Literature
2 Elements of Prose
3 Elements of Poetry
4 Elements of Drama
5 Elements of Registers
Module 4 Sample Textual Analyses
1 A Sample Stylistic Analysis of A Prose Passage
2 A Sample Stylistic Analysis of a Poem Passage
3 A Sample Stylistic Analysis of a Drama Passage
COURSE MARKING
You will be scored over 30% for each of your best assignments to arrive at 60% for your Continuous
Assessment. The final examination will carry 40%, to give a total of 100%. This is graphically
presented in the table below:
Assessment Marks
Assignments 1-4
(the best three of all the
assignments submitted)+ CAT
Assignments, marked out of 40% + 20% for CAT
Totaling 60%
Final examination 40% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks

MODULE 1: STYLE AND STYLISTICS
UNIT 1: The Concepts of Style and Stylistics
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Stylistics is a discipline which has been approached from many perspectives. Its meaning varies,
based on the theory that is adopted. When we carry out the different activities that are connected to our
area of business, either in spoken or written forms, we often use devices of thought and the rules of
language, but there are variations so as to change meanings or say the same thing in different ways.
This is what the concept of style is based upon: the use of language in different ways, all for the
purpose of achieving a common goal - to negotiate meanings.
1.1. Meaning of stylistics
Stylistics is a broad term that has assumed different meanings from different linguistic scholars.
But it can simply be said to be the study of style.
Style on its own as defined by Lucas (1955:9) is:
“The effective use of language, especially in prose, whether to make statements or to rouse
emotions. It involves first of all the power to put fact with clarity and brevity.”
Style has also been defined as the description and analysis of the variability forms of linguistic
items in actual language use. Leech (1969: 14) quotes Aristotle as saying that “the most effective
means of achieving both clarity and diction and a certain dignity is the use of altered from of words.”
Stylistics is also defined as a study of the different styles that are present in either a given utterance or
a written text or document. The consistent appearance of certain structures, items and elements in a
speech, an utterance or in a given text is one of the major concerns of Stylistics.
1.2. The Nature of Stylistics and its approaches
Stylistics requires the use of traditional levels of linguistic description such as sounds, form,
structure and meaning. It then follows that the consistent appearance of certain structures, items
STYLISTICS AND LITERARY TECHNIQUES MODULE COMPILED BY Dr.Ben Alexandre Mpozembizi,PhD Page 6

and elements in speech utterances or in a given text is one of the major concerns of stylistics.
Linguistic Stylistic studies are concerned with the varieties of language and the exploration of some of
the formal linguistic features which characterize them. The essence and the usefulness of stylistics is
that it enables the immediate understanding of utterances and texts, thereby maximising our
enjoyment of the texts.
The stylistics operates at all linguistic levels such as phonological, lexical and syntactic. Therefore,
Stylistics deals with:
 A wide range of language varieties and styles that that are possible in creating different
texts, whether spoken or written, monologue or dialogue, formal or informal, scientific
or religious etc.
 The study of the language of literature or the study of the language habits of particular
authors and their writing patterns.
 The techniques of explication which allows us to define objectively what an author has
done, (linguistic or non-linguistic), in his use of language.
 Enabling us understand the intent of the author in the manner the information has been
passed across by the author or writer.
 The examination of grammar, lexis, semantics as well as phonological properties and
discursive devices.
 The significance of function that the chosen style fulfills.
Stylistics looks at style in such dimension/approaches such as style as choice, style as the man, style
as deviation, style as conformity and style as time/period.
 Style as Choice
While examining the concept stylistics, it is equally essential to give attention to the notion of
choice. Choice is a very vital instrument of stylistics since it deals with the variations and the
options that are available to an author.
Since language provides its users with more than one choice in a given situation, there are different
choices available to the writer in a given text: This then depends on the situation and genre the
writer chooses in expressing thoughts and opinions. With the writer’s choice, there is a reflection
of his ego and the social condition of his environment.

In determining the appropriate choice of linguistic elements, two important choice planes are open to
the writer: the paradigmatic and the syntagmatic.
The paradigmatic axis is also referred to as the vertical or choice axis while the syntagmatic is the
horizontal axis.
The vertical axis gives a variety of choices between one item and other items; the writer then chooses the
most appropriate word.
The paradigmatic axis is able to account for the given fillers that occupy a particular slot while still
maintaining the structure of the sentence. At the paradigmatic level, for example, a writer or speaker
can choose between “start” and “commence”, “go” and “proceed.”
 Style as the Man
This is based on the notion that every individual has his or her own unique way of doing
things and that no two persons are of exactly the same character. There are always
distinctive features that distinguish one person from the other.
Thus, in literary style, one is able to differentiate between the writings of Soyinka and Achebe, based
on their use of language, among other things. A person’s style may also be shaped by his social and
political background, religious inclination, culture, education, geographical location, etc. Simply
put, the notion of style as the man sees style as an index of personality. But this perspective is
not without its own problems. For example, one may exhibit different styles on different occasions;
when this happens; do we say the writer has different personalities?
 Style as Deviation
When an idea is presented in a way that is different from the expected way, then we say such a
manner of carrying it out has deviated from the norm.
The concept of style as deviation is based on the notion that there are rules, conventions and
regulations that guide the different activities that must be executed. Thus, when these
conventions are not complied with, there is deviation.
Deviation in stylistics is concerned with the use of different styles from the expected norm of
language use in a given genre of writing. It is a departure from what is taken as the common
practice. Language deviation refers to an intentional selection or choice of language use outside of the
range of normal language.

Language is a system organised in an organic structure by rules and it provides all the rules for its use
such as phonetic, grammatical, lexical, etc. Thus, any piece of writing or material that has
intentionally jettisoned the rules of language in some way is said to have deviated. Stylistics helps
to identify how and why a text has deviated.
Deviation may occur at any level of language description e.g. phonological, graphological, syntactic,
lexico-semantic, etc.
 At the graphological level, for example, we may see capital letters where they are not
supposed to be.
 At the syntactic level, subject and verb may not agree in number. Or the normal order
of the clause elements may not be observed e.g. Adjunct may come before the
subject.
 At the lexico-semantic level, words that should not go together may be
deliberately brought together. e.g “dangerous safety,” “open secret.”
 Style as Conformity
Style as conformity can be seen as the first available option for a writer to express himself. This is so
because virtually all possible fields that a written material can belong to have been established. Any
style that is distinct is so as a result of deviation. In fact, it is on the notion of “style as conformity”
that the idea of “style as choice” operates and then results in or brings out the possibility of
style as deviation.
That is, a writer needs, first of all, to decide whether to conform to the established style or to
deviate. It is not in all situations that a writer enjoys flexibility to deviate. Style as conformity is
often “strictly enforced” in certain fields or circumstances. This is often in academic/educational
field as regard students’ research projects. It is also found so in some professional writings,
where a considerable conformity to the established format or diction is expected for a text to earn
acceptability.
One major weakness of conformity to the established style is that it clips creativity. But the moment a
text accommodates or injects some creativity in the style, it becomes marked as deviation from the
norm.
 Style as Period or Time
Style may also relate to time/period. This is so because language is dynamic – it is always changing.
This becomes obvious when we look at the stages in the development of the English language e.g. Old

English, Middle English and Modern English. When we look at a script in Old English now, it will
seem as if it were written in a different language because of the differences in syntax, vocabulary,
spelling, etc. Even within the so-called Modern English, there are variations. The type of English we
use today is different from Shakespearean English in many ways.
So, since language changes along time axis, style is also expected to vary along the same axis. The
study of language along time axis is termed diachronic linguistics. You may compare diachronic
linguistics with synchronic linguistics which deals with the study of language at a particular
time/period.
The style of any given period has recognisably predominant features that make such a period distinct.
A period usually dictates the style employed by the writers. For example, Shakespeare and his
contemporaries used a particular style of writing i.e. writing in verses. It was not until Herrick Ibsen
came up with plays in the prose form that the previous style was abandoned.
Similarly, the Victorian, Elizabethan, Renaissance and even the modern periods all have peculiar
styles different from another. In a nutshell, the noticeable convention and pattern of language use that
inform the urge of a particular period, make the style of that period.
 Style as Situation
Usually, language is used according to situation or circumstance. It is the context that
determines language choice in speaking or writing. Certain words are appropriate for certain
occasions, while some are considered taboo, vulgar or abominable. For example, a Professor, in a
scholarly conference, cannot indulge in a vulgarism like: “that theory is fucking up”.
Consequently, a given situation has a great influence on the choice made at every level of language
description. The concept of register further buttresses this point. For example, registers as aspect of
style tend to be associated with particular groups of people or sometimes specific situations of use
(Journalese, Legalese, Liturgese, Babytalk, the language of Sport Commentaries), the language of
criminals –argot, the languages of the courtroom, the classroom, etc). We shall say more about
register, later in this course.
1.3. SUMMARY
Stylistics is an important area of linguistics which has attracted the attention of many scholars. Apart
from its academic relevance, stylistics is applicable in many other areas of human endeavours where

language is used.
From the above, it becomes clear that the study of style is the preoccupation of stylistics. Stylistics
itself can be approached from different perspectives. The basic objective of stylistics is to reveal how
language is used to express what it expresses in a given text.
As a student of language, you should pay close attention to how language is used in any text. We have
focused in this unit on some popular perspectives on style, namely, style as choice, style as the man,
style as deviation, style as conformity, style as time/period and style as a situation.
SELF-REFLECTION ASSIGNMENT
(1) What do you understand by style?
(2) Discuss the concept of stylistics in its broad sense: nature and approaches.
(3) Explain each of the following:
 Style as choice
 Style as the man
 Style as deviation
 Style as conformity
 Style as time/period
 Style as situation.
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Allan, B. et al. (Eds.) (1988). The Montana Dictionary of Modern Thoughts. London: Fontana.
Leech, G. (1969). A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. London:
Longman.
Lucas, F. L. (1955). Style. London: Cassell and Coy.
Malmkjaer, K. (Ed.) (2002). The Linguistics Encyclopedia. London &
New York: Routledge.
Traugott, E. & Pratt, M. (1980). Linguistics for Students of Literature.
New York: Harcourt Brace.

Turner, G. (1973). Stylistics. Harmondsworth: Penguins Books. Wales, K. (1989). A Dictionary of
Stylistics. London: Longman.
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UNIT 2: Goals and features of stylistics contents
Stylistics is adaptive in nature such that its framework, as a veritable linguistic analytical
approach, deals with a whole range of human discourses: medical, religious, political, legal,
social, interpersonal, group communication, and so on.
2.1. STYLISTICS GOALS
The practice of stylistics is targeted at achieving certain goals:
1. To establish discourse peculiarities
Stylistics studies the peculiarities that characterise the discourse of a writer, speaker, period,
people or genre. Hence, stylistics could bring out certain features of Soyinka’s works which are
different from Osofisan’s works. It could help us identify the British English style as different from
the American English style, etc.
2. To induce appreciation of discourses
Stylistics involves the appreciation of a discourse in order to increase our enjoyment of the discourse.
It opens the reader’s mind to the form and function of a particular discourse. Stylistics is sensitive
to different linguistic manipulations and choices in a given text. It unfolds the beauty in authorial and
characters’ linguistic choices and opens the reader or listener’s mind to the aesthetic appeals of such
choices.
3. To ascertain linguistic habits
An author’s style is the product of a particular linguistic habit, conditioned by some social, cultural
and ideological environments. The objectives of stylistics in ascertaining habits are:
 To help determine the linguistic background and orientation of a given writer or speaker.
Thus, according to Chatman (1971), every analysis of style can be seen as an attempt to discover
the artistic principles that underpin the choice a writer has made. As a useful tool in the
interpretation of a text, stylistics serves as a mode of analysis for learning language and
developing awareness for the workings of language and the development of confidence to work
systematically towards effective interpretation of a text. This knowledge would lead us to arrive at an
objective rather than a subjective conclusion.
 The proper analysis of speaking and writing habits to discover patterns which
characteristically differentiate one variety of language from the other.
Therefore, there are a number of factors namely situations, mode of communication, context, socio-
linguistic constraints, as well as the need to conform to linguistic appropriateness, account
for variation across genres.
 To analyse language habits with the main purpose of identifying, from the general mass of

linguistic features common to English as used on every conceivable occasion.
In this respect, those features which are restricted to certain kinds of social context; to explain,
where possible, why such features have been used, as opposed to other alternatives; and to classify
these features into categories based upon a view of their function in the social context.
4. To make critical judgments
The application of stylistics on a discourse may help a stylistician to make an evaluative or critical
judgement. Stylistician often makes value-judgement statements like: “it is composed in grand
style.” The critical judgements made, based on veritable data are usually objective, hence,
stylistics can help us reveal a good style from a bad one.
2.2. STYLISTICS FEATURES
In order to achieve the goals stated above and some others that have not been mentioned here,
stylistics looks at many features of a text such as:
(i) Graphological Features
Through these features, a stylistician can reasonably explore and give descriptions of the physical
appearance of a literary text. Here, such features as the use of punctuation marks to create stylistic
effects are significant. However, a major feature here is foregrounding. In this instance, certain words
are foregrounded or brought to the fore to give them prominence through the use of italics, capital
letters, underlining, and so on. You will learn more about foregrounding later in this course.
(ii) Syntactic Features
The focus of syntactic analysis here is the identification of the effects created by the various sentence
types in a text. Such aspects as ellipses, parataxis, hypotaxis, right and left- branching sentences, etc
are considered significant. For instance, dislocation in syntax is occasionally used to demonstrate the
dislocation in human thoughts (stream of consciousness) and this is highly manifested in James
Joyce’s novels.
(iii) Lexico-Semantic Features
The stylistic use of words here may produce denotative, connotative, collocative, affective, thematic,
or stylistic meanings based on the speaker’s or writer’s intention. Certain characteristic use of words

may help us to identify the context of a text, its genre, its communicative purposes, its author, and so
on.
2.3. CONCLUSION
Stylistics adopts a multidisciplinary approach to achieve its goals. It examines language use in
different contexts in order to determine the style, purpose(s), meaning(s), etc and the over-all merit of
a particular work. With the techniques of stylistics at your disposal, you will be able to evaluate any
instance of language use with respect to its content and form. In summary, stylistics enables us to
interact meaningfully well with a text. It opens our minds to the various dimensions of a particular
literary or non- literary work. It is a discipline which is relevant to all activities which rely on the use
of language. Through our knowledge of stylistics, our knowledge of textual appreciation will increase,
just as our knowledge of the workings of language will appreciate. In short, stylistics will make us
informed observers and analysts of language use in the process of negotiating meanings.
SELF-REFLECTION ASSIGNMENT
(1) Mention and discuss goals of stylistics.
(2) Describe briefly the features of stylistics.
(3) Discuss on various objectives of stylistics in ascertaining habits
Birch, D. (1997). Context and Language: A Functional Linguistic Theory of Register. London: New
York Pinter.
Bradford, R. (1997). Stylistics. London and New York: Routledge.
Cook, G. (1974). Discourse and Literature: The Interplay of Form and Mind. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Crystal, D. & Davy, D, (1969). Investigating English Style. London: Longman.
Lucas, F. (1995). Style. London: Cassel and Coy.
Sebock, T.A. (1960). Style in Language. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Toolan, M. (1998). Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics. London: Hodder Arnold.
Wales, K. (2001). A Dictionary of Stylistics. (2nd ed.) Harlow: Longman.
Widowson, H.G. (1992). Practical Stylistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Williams, J. (2007). Style: Lesson in Clarity and Grace (9th ed.). NewYork: Longman.

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UNIT 3: Levels of stylistics: Linguistic stylistics and literary stylistics
3.1. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall discuss linguistic stylistics and literary stylistics as two broad types of stylistics.
In discussing linguistic stylistics, we shall use some poems and demonstrate how stylistics can be done
at some levels of language description. We shall therefore look at graphological, phonological,
syntactic, and lexico-semantic features. In addition, we shall also discuss the literary perception of
style.
3.2. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a) Mention types of stylistics and distinguish between them
b) Identify some features that can be looked at in a linguistic stylistic analysis
c) Explain what is involved in a stylistic analysis of a literary text.
3.3. Linguistic Stylistics
The following are the work of Linguistic stylistics:
 Linguistic stylistics explores the linguistic features of a text.
 Linguistic stylistics points out those linguistic choices which a writer or speaker has made as well
as the effects of the choices.
 Linguistic stylistics is primarily concerned with the use of language and its effects in a text.
 Given a piece of literature, a poem for example, a linguistic stylistic analyst will be interested in
describing the form and function of language in the poem, paying attention to certain curiosities
that may be accounted for in linguistic terms. This does not imply that linguistic stylistics
ignores the meanings which a poem conveys. In fact, the meaning is the focal point.
 Linguistic stylistics, then, directs its attention primarily to how a piece of discourse expresses the
language system. By language system, we mean linguistic features that can be examined based on
the levels of language.
 Linguistic stylistics studies the devices in languages (such as rhetorical figures and syntactical
patterns) that are considered to produce expressive or literary style.
 Similarly, the linguistic study of a text reveals a writer’s style and purpose of writing. For instance,
the use of proverbs in Achebe’s novels defines his style. Thus, if one criticizes a text through the
parameters of linguistic usage, it can be verified, but if on the other hand, one relies primarily

on literary criticism, one will only react to a text as his emotion dictates.
However, linguistic stylistics acknowledges the fact that it is not just enough to study the
language of literary texts, since there are two aspects to literature: the verbal and the artistic. In view
of this factor, linguistic stylistics has its major purpose, which is relating language use in literary texts
to its artistic function. So when language as used in the text is studied, it is not studied in isolation of
the artistic function, it is studies in order to ascertain how the writer has used language to express his
message.
3.4. Some Features of Linguistic Stylistics
In this section, we shall limit ourselves to some linguistic features that would serve as a platform for
an in-depth stylistic analysis of any text, though in this unit, we restrict ourselves to poetry.
 Lexical Repetition
As a form of lexical repetition, words may be repeated; synonyms or near-synonyms may be used. At
times, poets repeat some lexical items, near-synonymy may be used, for instance, to foreground the
intended message.
For instance, look at these lines:
Jilt her
Rape her
Milk her
Suck her
In the above extract from Okpanachi’s The Eaters of the Living (p. 80), we find a sense of lexical
relation. “Milk” and “Suck” in the context of the poem function as synonyms. The synonymous
selection is, however, determined by the emotion of the poet. The overall intention of the poet is to
emphasise his disdain for the political situation of his country. If we look closely at the poem, the
words correspond with the social situation of the country which the poet depicts.
 Lexico-Semantic Level
Semantics deals with meaning. At the lexico-semantic level, we look at the lexical choices made by a
writer or speaker. Here, words can be chosen for their denotative, connotative and other dimensions
of meanings. Look at this line:
“But tomorrow cannot be consoled.”
The above line is taken from Yeibo’s Maiden Lines. Syntactically, i.e., in terms of grammar, the
line is normal. The sentence begins with ‘but’, giving the assumption that it contrasts with the idea that
precedes it. But if we look at the sentence semantically, “tomorrow” is not an animate thing that
can be consoled; it is only humans that can be “consoled” or not consoled. Making “tomorrow” to
go with “consoled” creates some effect at this level.
 Syntactic Level

This has to do with the arrangement of units larger than the word. These units include groups/phrases,
clauses and sentences. Look at this sentence: “He went home”.
The pattern of the sentence is SPA (S – Subject, P = Predicator, A –Adjunct).
A poet can violate the order of the above sentence in the form below: “Home he went” (This has ASP
pattern).
The item “home” occurs in the initial position of the sentence to foreground it. This is deviation
for a specific effect.
 Phonological Level (Sounds)
Phonology refers to how sound is organized to mean. Sound patterning functions linguistically in
poetry to project a poet’s purpose or concern in a work” (Aboh. 2008: 67-8). Poetry has fashions and
different forms of sound patterning. Let us look at this example taken from Dasylva’s Songs of
Odamolugbe:
• Their stanzas of stifling scandals
• Cause the masses to curse
This is an example of alliteration. The sound stanzas and scandals are the poet’s deliberate selections.
The sound effect created by such selection gives the reader a deeper sense of understanding the
enormity of corruption and insincerity in the Nigerian society. It is the insincerity of the rulers that
‘cause’ the masses to ‘curse’.
 Graphological Level
Graphology means the arrangement of words based on their meanings. If a poet breaks the word
“Kingdom” into “king - dom” the poet has tampered with the morphology of the word, thereby
affecting the meaning.
Let us consider the example taken from Ushie’s Hill Songs:
On the wrinkled face of the hills I see my shortening shadow as my sun creeps towards the
west hills gently, gently, gently like afternoon’s flame l o w e r i n g to ash in the evening. (P.
35)
The above poem describes birth and death. While the preceding lines of the poem explicitly point to
aging, “lowering” (the graphological symbolism) shows interment. It describes the process of burial.
3.5. LITERARY STYLISTICS

Literary stylistics is synonymous to literary criticism, in a way. The ultimate purpose of literary
stylistics is:
 To explain the individual message of the writer in terms which makes its importance clear to
others.
 To decipher a message encoded in an unfamiliar way,
 To express its meaning in familiar and communal terms
 To provide the private message with a public relevance.
Those activities are not essentially different from the criticism of other art forms.
The literary stylistician is obviously sensitive to language, but his/her concern is not principally
with the way the signals of the artist are constructed but with the underlying message which an
interpretation of the signals reveals. Furthermore, literary stylistics is less interested in devising a
metalanguage into which the original message can be transferred.
Literary stylistics generally concerns with the following points:
 The literary stylistician is rather concerned with figurative and evocative uses of
language which characterise the message being interpreted.
 Literary stylistics, then, is primarily concerned with messages and the interest in codes
(language) lies in the meaning they convey in particular instances of use.
 The beauty of language and how it is used to capture reality is also the focal concern of
literary stylistics.
 Literary stylistics takes interpretation as its aim. It is interested in finding out what aesthetic
experience or perception of reality a poem, for example, is attempting to convey. Its
observation of how language system is used will serve only as a means to this end. It treats
literary works as messages.
 Literary stylistics undertakes the interpretation of a text as the ultimate objective of analysis. It
is based on the consideration of the stylistically significant features of the text (including
clause and sentence structure, paragraphing and cohesion) and of lexis.
3.6. CONCLUSION
The above examples are just small parts of stylistic analysis, especially a linguistic stylistic analysis.
The ability of an analyst to unearth stylistic features depends, by and large, on his linguistic and
literary awareness. Linguistic stylistics and literary stylistics are not limited to the analysis of the
language of literature. Any form of language use such as news reporting, advertising, football
commentary, etc can be analysed stylistically from the two perspectives. Thus this unit has
established a distinction between two main types of stylistics: literary stylistics and linguistic
stylistics. Under linguistic stylistics, we examined some linguistic features that have stylistic
effects. We argued that linguistic stylistics is primarily concerned with the description of

language used in a text, while literary stylistics is principally interested in interpreting the
message of a work of art; making a personal message of an artist gain communal significance.
However, in practice, there is no justification for bifurcating stylistics into linguistic stylistics and
literary stylistic. Therefore, these two forms of stylistics are merged in this course, in practice.

REFLECTION ASSIGNMENT
(1) Identify some features that can be focused on in a linguistic stylistic analysis
(2) Carry out a literary analysis of any poem of your choice
Ayeomoni, N. (2003). “The Role of Stylistics in Liteary Studies.” In: Oyeleye, L. & Olateju, M. (Eds).
Readings in Language and Literature. Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press.
Crystal, (1969). Investigating English Style. London: Longman.
Dasylva, A. (2006). Songs of Odamolugbe. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited.
Okpanachi, M. (2006). The Eaters of the Living. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited.
Ushie, J. (2002). Hill Songs. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited. Yeibo, E. (2004). Maiden Lines. Ibadan: Kraft
Books Limited.
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UNIT 4: TYPES OF STYLISTICS
4.0. INTRODUCTION
Stylistics has become so vibrant a field of study that it has drawn insights from a number of disciplines
or fields. Each of these disciplines has its own approach to the study of style in texts. A situation such
as this has brought about various types of stylistics. Thus, it becomes possible for a stylistician to do a
thorough stylistic examination of a text by adopting any of the various approaches at his or her disposal.
4.1. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a) Identify and explain types of stylistics apart from linguistic and literary stylistics
b) Describe the method(s) of each type of stylistics
4.2. Types of Stylistics

4.2.1. Reader-Response Stylistics
This type of stylistics stemmed from the strand of modern ‘subjective’ criticism called reader-response
criticism, otherwise known, in the German school of criticism as reception aesthetics. Very notable figures
among the proponents of modern criticism, I.A. Richards and William Empson, steered the critics of texts
towards appreciating the words, which are contained on the pages of a text, rather than considering the
author of such a text. This development in literary criticism is a radical departure from the Romantic
conception of the author as being totally responsible for whatever meaning that one, as a reader, may
encounter on the pages of a text. Inspired by Roland Barthes’ view, the new critics, as the proponents of
modern criticism are called, believed that the meaning of a text can, solely, be determined through the
interaction between the reader and the words on the pages of the text. This is what the reader- response
criticism concerns itself with.
Thus, the reader-response stylistics examines the reader’s response to a text as a response to a horizon
of expectations. By a horizon of expectations, is meant that there is multiplicity of meanings or
interpretations in a text and these can be accessed by the reader according to his or her level of what
Jonathan Culler (1981: 25) describes as “literary competence”. A reader’s literary competence is highly
informed by the social world in which a text is produced as it usually has a shaping effect on his or her
interpretation of such a text.
In the reader-response stylistics, there is an interaction between the structure of the text and the reader’s
response. Thus, the reader becomes an active part of the text. The reader-response stylistics evokes a
situation where individual readers give meaning to the text. This is because each reader will interact with the
text differently, as the text may have more than one vivid interpretation.
The theorists of this type of stylistics share two beliefs:
a) The role of the reader cannot be ignored
b) Readers do not passively consume the meaning presented to them by a literary text. Instead, readers
actively make the meaning they find in literature. This is to say that literature exists and signifies
when it is read and its force is an affective one.
4.2.2. Affective Stylistics

Attracted to the fascinating insights proffered by the reader-response criticism on the process of criticising a
text, an American stylistician, Stanley Fish, appropriated it (the reader-response criticism) as affective
stylistics. Affective stylistics came around to be identified as one of the two varieties of a major branch of
stylistics, namely, literary stylistics and expressive stylistics. Whereas expressive stylistics is
writer/speaker - oriented, that is, focuses on style as purely the representation of the personality of the
author, affective stylistics is reader/ hearer – oriented i.e. its focus is on the consumers.
Like its close partner (the reader - response stylistics), affective stylistics ferrets out the emotional responses
that a reader or hearer makes in the course of his or her interacting with, that is, reading or listening to a text.
However, it goes further to examine the psychological operations that are usually involved in the
reader’s process of reading or the hearer’s process of listening; hence, it is, otherwise, known as “process
stylistics”.
According to Fish (1970), in affective stylistics, the stylistician relies primarily upon his or her affective
responses to stylistics, elements in the text. Here, the literary text is not formally self-sufficient; it
comes alive through the interpretative strategy that the reader deploys hence the need to analyse the
developing responses of the reader in relation to the words as they succeed one another in the text. The
work and its result are one and the same thing; what a text is and what it does.
Affective stylistics could equally be seen as the impact of a text’s structure on the reader as the work
unfolds. The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as
feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations and attitudes.
4.2.3. Pragmatic Stylistics
Pragmatic stylistics is part of the manifestation of linguistic stylistics. This variety of stylistics shows the
meeting point between pragmatics and stylistics, that is, how pragmatic resources, such as performative and
speech acts can be employed to achieve stylistic effects.
Stylistics, as has been shown in the previous units, is traditionally concerned with the study of style in
language. Verdonk (2002:4) defines it as the analysis of a distinctive expression and description of its
purpose and effect. The partnership between both pragmatics and stylistics appears quite possible given the
qualities that they share. Both are, for instance, interested in such features as are beyond the sentence
boundary. The application of pragmatic and stylistic theories to text analysis indicates a clear departure from

how texts were analysed when modern linguistics began to develop. In this respect, Dressier et al (1993:16)
inform us that the tradition at the inception of the evolution of modern linguistics was for analysts to
confine the analysis of a text to the domain of sentence which was, then, regarded as the largest unit
with an inherent structure. The pragmatic meaning of a text can be recovered through the context that
produces the text.
4.2.4. Pedagogical Stylistics
This type of stylistics shows the instructional use into which stylistics is put. Wales (1997: 438) explains that
stylistics has been, considered a teacher’s ready tool of teaching language and literature to both native
and foreign speakers of English:
 In order to achieve his goal of teaching with ease, a teacher is guided by certain strategies or
objectives. Often times, a teacher cannot but be flexible in his or her course of achieving his or her
teaching objectives. In this wise, a close ally to pedagogical stylistics is classroom discourse analysis.
 For long, pedagogical stylistics has been intrinsically linked with the teaching of the linguistic
features of written texts as a means of enhancing students’ understanding of literature and language.
 Pedagogical stylistics is based on the premise that stylisticians who are involved with teaching
should be aware of the pedagogical orientation and reading paradigms which inform their practice. It
is also a theoretical dimension to research undertaken into practice in the stylistics classroom.
 Pedagogical stylistics emphasises that the process of improving students’ linguistic sensibilities must
include greater emphasis upon the text as action; that is, upon the mental processing which is
such as proactive part of reading and interpretation; and how all of these elements – pragmatic and
cognitive as well as linguistic – function within quite specific social and cultural contexts.
4.2.5. Forensic Stylistics
Forensic stylistics is a part of forensic linguistics. In general, forensic stylistics is the application of stylistics
to crime detection. Through the stylistic analysis of language use at the different levels of language
description, it is possible to determine the author of a text. This may be applied to confessional statements to
the police. Issues like voice recognition, identification of regional accents are often studied to arrive at useful
conclusions in terms of crime detection (see Bloor, M. and Bloor, T. 2007).
4.3. CONCLUSION
It has been shown in the foregoing that stylistics adopts a multidisciplinary approach to the analysis of
texts. We are, thus, made to appreciate the claim that though stylistics is located in linguistics we should not
lose sight of the fact that it (stylistics) also draws inspiration from a number of disciplines. It is however the

responsibility of an individual stylistician to determine when insights from specific disciplines or sub-
disciplines are needed in his or her analysis of a text and how such insights can be effectively utilized.
Stylistics has been proved to be a useful tool in the hands of an analyst who wishes to analyse a text from any stand
point. Analysing a text provides one a better way to read a text. Stylistics may be regarded as a window into the
world of texts. An analyst may adopt a particular approach in opening the window into the world of texts. The
different approaches that may be adopted are embedded in the different strands of stylistics as reader-response
stylistics, affective stylistics, pragmatic stylistics, pedagogical stylistics and forensic stylistics.
(1) Identify four other types of stylistics apart from linguistic and literary stylistics
(2) Explain carefully the type of stylistics identified in above
(3) How does each type of stylistics work?
Ayodabo, J. (1997). “A Pragma-Stylistic Study of Abiola’s Historic Speech of June 24, 1993” in Lawal,
A. (Ed.) Stylistics in Theory and Practice. Ilorin: Paragon Books pp136-149.
Baldick, C. (1996). Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bloor, M. & Bloor, T. (2007). The Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis: An Introduction. London:
Hodder Education.
Culler, J. (1981). “Liteary Competence.” In Freeman, D. (Ed.) Essays in Modern Stylistics. New York:
Methuen.
Enkvist, N.E. (1964). ‘On Defining Style’, Enkvist, S. & Gregory, Linguistics and Style. London:
Oxford University Press ppl-56.
Fish, S.E. (1970). Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics. Washington DC: John Hopkins
University Press. Retrieved from htt://gateway. Proquest. Com/open url?url-
ver=z39.88- 2004&res_dat=xri:pao:&rft_dat= xri:paoarticle:b222_1970-002- 01-000009.June 20, 2011.
Fish, S.E. (1980). Is there a text in this class? The authority of Interpretative Communities. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press.
Osundare, N. (2003). Cautious Paths through the Bramble. Ibadan: Hope Publications.

Tompkins, J.P. (1980). Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to Post-Structuralism. Baltmore: Johns
Hopkins University Press.
Verdonk, P. (2006). Stylistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wales, K. (1989). A Dictionary of Stylistics.
London: Longman.
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MODULE 2 : LEVELS OF LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS
UNIT 1: THE PHONO-GRAPHOLOGICAL LEVEL
1.0. INTRODUCTION
The Systemic Functional Grammar developed by M.A.K. Halliday recognises phonology and graphology as
the levels of language substance. Phonology deals with the phonic substance (segmental and suprasegmental
units of language) while graphology deals with the graphic substance. This unit will expose you to those
things that should be considered in doing a stylistic analysis at the phono-graphological level of language
description. Look at the table below, taken from Tomori (1977: 45).
Phono-graphology as a term was popularised by Halliday (1961) in explicating a number of different
Phonetics
Linguistics
SITUATION
Phonic
Substance Phonology Context (extra-textural
features)
Graphic
substance
Orthography
(Grammar
lexis)
← →
FORM
← →
SUBSTANCE

levels at which linguistic events should be accounted for. Within this framework, Halliday (1961:243-4)
observes that the primary levels are ‘form’, ‘substance’ and ‘context’.
According to him, the substance is the material of language: ‘phonic’ (audible noises) or ‘graphic’
(visible marks), hence phono-graphology is the organisation of substance into meaningful events.
The context relates the form to non-linguistic features of the situation in which language operates to yield
extra-textual features. Therefore, Systemic working within this tradition, Leech and Short (1981)
identify four levels of language description: syntax, semantics, phonology and graphology. Syntax and
phonology form the expression plane and interact to bring out meaning which is the pre-occupation of
semantics, According to them; graphology is an alternative form of realisation to phonology. Although
phonological features can be said to be remote in a written text, they are still not irrelevant. After all, a text is
written to be read or spoken. Spellings can be exploited to suggest some phonological features and these will
be more prominent when the text is read aloud. Phonologically, the analysis of language at this level
involves the basic sound units such as the combination of sounds, stress, tone and patterns of intonation.
Furthermore, it is at this level that we consider the possible syllable structure of a particular language and the
various ways in which syllables can be combined. This aspect can also be helpful in a contrastive study of
languages. For example, while two or more consonants can occur in a sequence in English, it is not so in
Yoruba.
The Segmentals
The segmental units of English consist of at least twenty vowels and twenty-four consonants. The
twenty vowels are made up of twelve pure vowels and eight diphthongs. Also, the twenty-four consonants
are made up of fifteen voiced and nine voiceless consonants. Refer to your phonetics and phonology course
for the basic knowledge of these segmental units. Here, it is enough for you to note that writers,
especially poets, can exploit the sounds and their structures to achieve special effects e.g. through the
use of alliteration, assonance, and so on.
The Suprasegmentals
The suprasegmentals are the units that are larger than the segmentals. Stress, for example, is a

suprasegmental unit. It refers to the degree of force or loudness with which a syllable is pronounced. It
can also indicate a word class as in
1
present (noun), pre
1
sent (verb);
1
object (noun), ob
1
ject (verb).
Intonation which is another suprasegmental unit indicates primarily, the falling or rising pitch of a word
or sentence as in:
He has come (falling intonation) He has come? (rising intonation)
The falling intonation in (a) above indicates a statement, while the rising intonation in (b) indicates a
question. The combination of stress and intonation gives the English language its peculiar rhythm, and
writers, especially poets, utilize heavily this feature of the language to achieve some effects in their writings.
Graphology
At this level, such things as spelling, punctuation, space management, underlining, use of pictures,
colouring, etc. are considered and analysed. The pattern of writing can also indicate the variety of language
involved. For instance, words like ‘color’ and ‘meter’ are classified as American English, based on their
spellings. Conversely, their varieties (‘colour’ and ‘metre’) are regarded as British English for the same
reason.
Graphological elements are often used to achieve foregrounding in a text. Foregrounding simply means
making certain elements in a text prominent so as to attract attention. Any aspect of a text that is
foregrounded is made conspicuous to attract the reader’s attention. You will learn more about foregrounding
later in this course.
CONCLUSION
From the foregoing, we have been able to explain the concept of phono-graphology as the yoking of
phonology and graphology. While phonological features are of special significance in speech, graphological
elements are also of immense importance in writing. Both phonic and graphic elements of language form
what systemic Functional Grammar calls the substance of language.
Therefore, Phono-graphological analysis can be said to involve the analysis of the deployment of
phonological units of segmentals and suprasegmentals at one level and those of the graphic substance of
language – i.e. features relating to the writing system. A phono-graphological analysis will be pertinent in

the analysis of poetry, in particular. But both aspects are necessarily involved in a stylistic analysis of a text
– be it spoken or written. This will be apparent when you consider a written text that is meant to be spoken.
Such an analysis is no less significant in other genres if we are to account for their total significance.
(1) What do you understand by phono-graphology?
(2) What features are significant in a phono-graphological analysis?
(3) Do a phono-graphological analysis of the following text:
- Elesin: Words are cheap. ‘We know you for A man of honour. Well tell
me, is this how A man of honour should be seen?
Are these not the same clothes in which I came among you a full
half-hour ago?
- Iyaloja: Richly, richly, robe him richly
The cloth of honour is alari Sanyan is the band of friendship Boa-
skin makes slippers of esteem.
(Death and the King’s Horseman pp. 16-17)
Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). “Categories of the Theory of Grammar.” 17(3) PP. 241 – 292.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward.
Leech, G. & Short, M. (1981). Style in Fiction. A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional
Prose. New York: Longman.
Soyinka, W. (1975). Death and the King’s Horseman. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd. Pp. 16-17.
Tomori, S. (1977). The Morphology and Syntax of Present-day English: An Introduction. London:
Heinemann.
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UNIT 2: COHESION AND COHERENCE
2.0. INTRODUCTION
When we speak or write, we often use certain devices to create unity and relevance in what we

communicate. When we talk of cohesion and coherence in a piece of communication, we refer to the
phenomenon of achieving unity and relevance. This is our focus in this unit. Both cohesion and coherence
are essential features of a text which define its textuality and relevance or meaningfulness.
2.1. Meaning of Cohesion and Coherence
As observed by scholars (Quirk et al, 1985; Stern, 2001; Osisanwo, 2003), coherence has to do with
sense. Therefore, when a text or discourse makes sense to a reader, the text is said to have coherence.
Cohesion- from the Latin word for ‘sticking together’ (Stern. 2001:51) –is a term in functional grammar
that relates to how texts (words and sentences) are held together lexically and grammatically as a whole.
A text that lacks cohesion will be fragmented and disjointed. The following examples can be used to
illustrate cohesion and coherence:
Mummy beat John. John had come home late, (coherent but not cohesive)
Mummy beat John because he had come home late, (cohesive and coherent).
Notice that the conjunction, “because”, and the pronoun, “he” are the cohesive devices in sentence (ii)
above. Both are known as the conjunctive cohesion and referential cohesion respectively.
Mummy beat John because America is a developed country, (cohesive but not coherent)
Mummy beat John. America is a developed country, (not cohesive and not coherent).
2.2. Methods of Achieving Cohesion in Discourse
There are some ways of giving a text cohesion. Let us first illustrate each of them before embarking on a
detailed discussion.
(i) Referential Cohesion
“I met with Samuel and he asked me to pay him a visit.” (‘He’ refers to Samuel).
Referential cohesion means using pronouns or determiners to refer to the known nouns in a text.
Backward referencing is known as anaphoric reference while forward referencing is called cataphoric
reference. In the following text the instances of each referential cohesion are underlined.

Jane had permanent booking at the Star Theatre but she decided not to go today, (‘she” refers
anaphorically to Jane).
After several years, as she approached another renewal of her vows, Melissa was called to an
interview with a visiting French priest, (‘she’ and ‘her’ refer cataphorically to Melissa).
(ii) Conjunctive Cohesion
“I saw him when I arrived.” (‘When’ is a conjunctive device).
Conjunctive cohesion comprises the use of core conjunctions, basically involving the three coordinators,
“AND”, “BUT”. “OR” and conjuncts which are of various kinds.
For example:
In the Ancient society, the people gathered together in the arena and made laws that guided the
land.
There are laws guiding the conduct of people in the society, but people break them in their
propensity.
Where people lived their wills; they have the choice to obey the law or break it.
In the examples above, the underlined linguistic items or coordinating conjunctions are used cohesively.
(iii) Elliptical Cohesion
“She prayed and slept.” (‘She’ is left unsaid in the second clause).
Ellipsis denotes a kind of substitution by zero. It deals with the omission of word(s) while, simultaneously,
relying on the readers’ minds to deduce and fill in the missing bits from what they have read (or heard
before). It is used in discourse to avoid repetition and redundancy. In the following text, the words and
expressions you can omit are in the brackets.
Tina looked back and (she) saw her parents. They were very happy, and she was (happy) as well.
They were strolling along and she was (strolling along) too. Do you think they got there on time?
Yes, I do. (think they got there on time).
Ellipsis can be realized at different clausal/sentential levels. Examples include:
Mary prayed and slept. (The subject “Mary” is ellipted in the second clause).
The rich are getting richer; the poor, poorer, (ellipsis at the verbal level “are getting”).
He promised to be there yesterday and he was. (ellipsis at the adverbial level “there yesterday” is left
unsaid in the second clause).
(iv) Substitutive Cohesion
This denotes replacing a linguistic item with another. For example:
Would you like a cup of coffee?

Yes, I’d like one. (‘one’ replaces ‘a cup of coffee’).
(v) Lexical cohesion
Lexical cohesion means using words to achieve unity in a text. There are four varieties of lexical cohesion:
Repetition (repeating the same word or words): Play, play, play: that’s all you seem to do.
Synonymy (using words with similar meanings): I saw this large dog. You know, really huge.
Antonymy (using words with opposite meanings): Get educated! You can’t always stay ignorant.
(vi) Parallelism (this is repeating the same syntactic pattern/ structure).
Examples are: (1) “I came, I saw, I conquered”. Here, the SP (Subject, Predicator) pattern is
repeated.
(2) “United we stand, divided we fall.” Here, CSP (Complement, Subject,
Predicator) pattern is repeated.
2.3. Stylistic Values of Cohesion and Coherence
Both cohesion and coherence constitute part of the features of textuality which a text must possess to be
defined as a communicative piece. Both are stylistically valuable to the text as they assist it (the text) to
exhibit logical consistency and clarity such as can enable the readers have a good grasp of it. Coherence
accounts for the meaningfulness or relevance of a text, while cohesion defines the textuality of a text.
2.4. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we should note that while coherence deals with sense, cohesion relates to unity. The
concept of sense relates to the notion of meaningfulness or relevance. When we communicate, we create
certain lexical and grammatical ties that bind our writing or speech together.
Any piece of communication that is logical will be coherent. So watch for logicality in any piece of text you
analyse stylistically.
In order to undertake an effective stylistic analysis of any text you must pay attention to cohesion and
coherence in the text. In doing this, we must have a good knowledge of the context of the text as well as its
lexical and grammatical features. Creating relevance and unity in our texts makes communication more
meaningful and logical.

1. What do you understand by cohesion and coherence?
2. Analyse the following passage in terms of its cohesion and coherence.
A. Akpan: Do you mind a piece of advice?
B. Udoh: I don’t mind any.
A. Akpan: Are you listening?
B. Udoh: Yes, I am.
A. Akpan: The only solution to the problem is National Conference. I said that
because every group would say its mind and give its condition and terms
for staying together. (Osisanwo, 2003: 30).
REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
Halliday, M.A.K. & Hassan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd Edition). London: Edward.
Osisanwo, W. (2003). Introduction to Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics. Lagos: Femolous-Fetop
Publishers.
Quirk, R. & Greenbaum, S. (1973). A University Grammar of English. Harlow Essex: Longman.
Widdowson, J. (1978). Teaching Language as Communication. London: Oxford University Press.
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UNIT 3: FOREGROUNDING
3.0. INTRODUCTION
Foregrounding is a popular concept in stylistics, especially in the analysis of the language of poetry. It was
Garvin, according to Wales (1989), who introduced the term in 1964 to translate the Prague School’s
“aktualisace” which literally means “actualisation” (p. 182). Foregrounding is now a popular notion in the
study of stylistics generally.
3.1. Meaning of Foregrounding
Foregrounding refers to the concept of making certain features prominent in a text. Some linguistic features

can be made prominent for special effects against the background features in a text. Scholars have examined
the term as used in the literary enterprise as being for purely aesthetic exploitation of language which has the
aim of making what is familiar unfamiliar in order to attract attention. The concept of deviation
is closely related to that of foregrounding in that what is foregrounded is made to deviate from the familiar
pattern.
Also, when the content of a text has deviated from the norms of language use, then we can say that a style is
being carved out. In the process of determining the area of deviation in the study of stylistics, one has to
identify the different highlighted aspects that have been made prominent. Thus, foregrounding is related to
the notion of deviation and it provides the basis for a reader’s recognition of style. As Halliday (1994) says,
foregrounding is prominence that is motivated. He also defines prominence as the general name for the
phenomenon of linguistic highlights whereby some linguistic features stand out in some way. Thus, to
Halliday, a feature that is brought into prominence will be foregrounded only if it relates to the meaning of
the whole text. He posits that foregrounding can be qualitative i.e. deviation from the language code, or
quantitative, deviation from the expected frequency.
The purpose of foregrounding, linguistic or non-linguistic, is to add an unusual and unique idea, to the
language. Thus, foregrounding can manifest in various ways in a text. These include unusual
capitalisation, italicisation, bold words, contractions, underlining, picture/art works and so on. We can
say that the use of these foregrounding devices creates some visual imagery which adds to the memorability
of a text.
3.2. Two Main Types of Foregrounding
According to Wales (1989: 182), foregrounding can be achieved in a variety of ways usually grouped into
two main types: deviation and repetition, that is, “paradigmatic” and “syntagmatic foregrounding.”
Wales explains further that deviations are violations of linguistic norms, e.g. grammatical/semantic norms,
strange metaphors, similes or collocations that are deployed to achieve special effects in a text, especially
poetry, amount to foregrounding. Consider, for example, these lines from Okara’s “New Year’s Eve
Midnight”:
“A year is born.”
“And my heart-bell is ringing.”
Here, a year is said to be born and a bell is said to be ringing in the poet’s heart!

Repetition is also said to be a kind of deviation as it flouts the “normal rules of usage by over-frequency”
(Wales, 1989: 182). Repetition of sounds or syntactic patterns have the tendency to strike the readers as
uncommon and thereby engage their attention. Such a device is seen at work in Senghor’s poem: “I will
pronounce your name.” See the first line of the poem:
“I will pronounce your name, Naett, I will declaim you, Naett!
Lines two, three and four of the poem also continue with this form of
foregrounding:
“Naett, your name is mild like cinnamon, it is the fragrance in which the lemon grove sleeps,
Naett, your name is the sugared clarity of blooming coffee trees.”
As Wales hints, what is or is not foregrounded may be difficult to determine in some contexts since the
elements of subjectivity may not be ruled out. When this seems to be the case, Wales advises the students of
style to consider the “significance or effect of the foregrounded items…” (p. 183). Thus, we have to go
beyond mere identification of the foregrounded elements and proceed to the level of their effects.
3.3. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, foregrounding is stylistically significant in literary texts, especially poetry, but it is not
limited to literary texts. Other texts such as advertisements, postals, obituary notices, etc may also deploy
foregrounding to create some effects. Any text that successfully deploys foregrounding becomes multi-
semiotic or, multi-vocal, and its interpretation will call for a pluralistic approach.
In this unit, we have been able to point out that deviation and repetition are important means of achieving
foregrounding. As students of stylistics, we need to go beyond mere recognition of foregrounded elements to
consider their stylistic significance in a text. When an item is made prominent in a text by foregrounding it,
the author wants to draw our attention to its significance.
(1) What is foregrounding?
(2) What do you think is the importance of foregrounding in any text?

Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. (2nd ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Fasold, R.W, et al. (2006). An Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). Introduction to Functional Grammar. London, Edward.
Senanu, K. & Vincent, T. (1976). A Selection of African Poetry. London.
Wales, K. (1989). A Dictionary of Stylistics. London: Longman.
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MODULE 3: BASIC GENRES OF LITERATURE AND THEIR
ELEMENTS
UNIT 1: FORMS OF LITERATURE
1.0. INTRODUCTION
When we talk about the “genres” of literature, we refer to typologies of creative writing based on form,
outlook, structure and, to an extent, purpose. This invariably means that literature has different kinds,
despite the fact that it has to do with inventive, imaginative writing.
It is a common practice to classify literature into three main genres, namely:
- Prose-fiction,
- Poetry
- Drama.
In this unit, we shall look at the three main classifications, namely prose, poetry and drama in relation to
stylistics.
1.1. PROSE- FICTION

1.1.1. Meaning
Among the genres of literature, prose-fiction is the one that most resembles our conventional, everyday kind
of story telling activity. A writer of prose-fiction basically narrates a story in a continuous form as any teller
of folktales, or any narrator of an exciting event or episode would.
The main instrument for presenting prose-fiction is narration and the person who writes the prose work may
be the narrator of the story, telling the readers (the audience) what happened, to whom, why it happened and
at what time it happened. Prose-fiction is arguably the commonest and most patronized form of literature in
the modern world. But it shares a lot with the story traditions of the ancient world which comes in the form
of myths, parables, romances, fables, folktales, etc, and which are all also narrative in form.
Prose-fiction is made up of the novel, the novella and the short story, all of which are narrative in form. The
commonest among the forms of prose fiction is the novel, which is also the lengthiest of the three. Palmer
defines it as a “compact, coherent (and) unified fictitious prose narrative having a beginning, middle and an
end” (Palmer, 1986:1). Palmer goes ahead to say that the novel deploys materials and information in such a
way as to give the image of coherence, continuity and wholeness, and with certain tensions.
Interestingly, the novel is the newest among the literary forms, coming into life after poetry and drama had
become established literary genres. Though there have been arguments that the novel existed in several
forms in the English, Italian, Greek and Roman literary traditions before the eighteenth century, critics have
cited Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1919) as the world’s first novel. The novel has grown from those
humble beginnings characterized by uncertainty to become the world’s most popular literary form today.
The essential distinguishing factor between the novel, the novella and the short story has to do with
length/volume. The novel is basically longer than the novella, while the short story is the shortest of the
three. The novella, a subgenre of prose-fiction, is a very difficult form to describe, shorter than the novel and
longer than the short story.
From the above view, it is clear that the novella is closer to the novel than the short story. Like the novel, the
novella tries to capture life and experiences in some detail, even if this chronicle ends up being shorter than
the novel. It is more difficult to distinguish between the novel and the novella than between the short story

and the novella. That is why the novella is a much restricted form of literature, being represented by a small
body of output. Famous examples of the novella form include Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, Henry
James’ The Turn of the Screw and Alex La Guma’s A Walk in the Night.
The short story has been described as the form of prose-fiction which narrates fundamentally, just one
event, or an aspect of one event, making an immediate impact on its reader in the process. Millet sees the
short story as an imaginative “account of a happening” (1950: 8). For Millet, “the short story tends to focus
attention on not more than a single central character” (1950: 8). The short story became a much patronized
literary form in the apartheid South Africa because the South African chaotic and volatile environment of the
fascist regime provided writers like Lewis Nkosi, Bloke Modiasane, Ezekiel Mphalele, etc, with neither the
rest of mind nor the peaceful atmosphere to indulge in anything longer.
To sum up, Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of
speech, and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional
poetry.
Normal everyday speech is spoken in prose, and most people think and write in prose form. Prose comprises
of full grammatical sentences, which consist of paragraphs, and forgoes aesthetic appeal in favor of clear,
straightforward language. It can be said to be the most reflective of conversational speech. Some works of
prose do have versification, and a blend of the two formats that is called “prose poetry.”
1.1.2. Some Common Types of Prose
i. Nonfictional Prose: A literary work that is mainly based on fact, though it may contain fictional
elements in certain cases. Examples include biographies and essays.
ii. Fictional Prose: A literary work that is wholly or partly imagined or theoretical. Examples are
novels.
iii. Heroic Prose: A literary work that may be written down or recited, and which employs many of the
formulaic expressions found in oral tradition. Examples are legends and tales.
iv. Prose Poetry: A literary work that exhibits poetic quality – using emotional effects and heightened
imagery – but which are written in prose instead of verse.
Examples of Prose in Literature

Prose in Novels
This is usually written in the form of a narrative, and may be entirely a figment of the author’s imagination.
Example #1: 1984 (By George Orwell)
“It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.”
Example #2: David Copperfield (By Charles Dickens)
“Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by
anybody else, these pages must show.”
Example #3: Anna Karenina (By Leo Tolstoy)
“Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.”
These examples of prose have been taken from novels, where the writers have employed their imaginations.
They are examples of fictional prose.
Prose in Speeches
Prose used in speeches often expresses thoughts and ideas of the speaker.
Example #4: No Easy Walk to Freedom speech (By Nelson Mandela)
“You can see that there is no easy walk to freedom anywhere, and many of us will have to
pass through the valley of the shadow (of death) again and again before we reach the
mountain tops of our desires.”
Example #5: Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech (By Mother Teresa)
“The poor are very great people. They can teach us so many beautiful things.”
Example #6: Equal Rights for Women speech (By U.S. Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm)
“As for the marriage laws, they are due for a sweeping reform, and an excellent beginning
would be to wipe the existing ones off the books.”
These prose examples have been taken from speeches where the writing is often crisp and persuasive, and
suits the occasion to convey a specific message.
Prose in plays is often in conversational mode and is delivered by a character. However, its style stays the
same throughout the play according to the personality of the character.

1.1.3. Function of Prose
While there have been many critical debates over the correct and valid construction of prose, the reason for
its adoption can be attributed to its loosely-defined structure, which most writers feel comfortable using
when expressing or conveying their ideas and thoughts.
a) Prose is the standard style of writing used for most spoken dialogues, fictional as well as topical and
factual writing, and discourses.
b) It is also the common language used in newspapers, magazines, literature, encyclopedias,
broadcasting, philosophy, law, history, the sciences, and many other forms of communication.
1.1.4. Elements of fiction/Prose
There are 6 elements of fiction:
*Plot
*Characterization
*Theme
*Setting
*Point of View
*Style
(i) PLOT
The sequence of incidents or events through which an author constructs a story.
i. The plot is not merely the action itself, but the way the author arranges the action toward a specific
end (structure).
ii. The “framework” or “skeleton” of the story;
iii. A series of related events that are linked together
What Makes Up Plot?
 Basic Situation (Exposition)
- Tells the audience who the characters are and introduces the conflict.
- This usually occurs at the beginning of a story. Here the characters are introduced. We also learn
about the setting. The setting is the time and place of the story. Most importantly though, we are
introduced to the main conflict (main problem).

Example: Paul wants to go to an out-of-state university, but his family can only afford to pay the tuition at a
local college.
 Rising Action
- Complications that arise when the characters take steps to resolve their conflicts
- This part of the story begins to develop the conflict(s). A building of interest or suspense occurs. All
rising action leads to the climax.
Example: Paul goes to work on a nearby farm to earn extra money. There, he meets Miranda, and the two
start dating
 Climax
- Most exciting or suspenseful moment when something happens to determine the outcome of the
conflict.
- This is the turning point of the story. Usually the main character comes face to face with a conflict.
The main character will change in some way. It is also usually the most intense and exciting part of
the story.
Example: Paul and Miranda argue about his leaving for university. Paul must choose to stay or go.
 Falling Action:
The conflict is in the process of being resolved or “unraveled. The conflict(s) and climax are taken care of.
Example: Paul visits his parents to get some advice about what he should do.
 Resolution or denouement
The story comes to a reasonable ending. Final part of the story • the conflict is resolved.
Example: Paul decides to leave for university. Miranda makes plans to visit him and wishes him well.
FREYTAG’S PYRAMID
Gustav Freytag was a Nineteenth Century German novelist who saw common patterns in the plots of stories
and novels and developed a diagram to analyze them. He diagrammed a story's plot using a pyramid like the
one shown here:

Important elements of Plot:
*Conflict: A clash of actions, ideas, desires, or wills. Conflict is the dramatic struggle between two forces in
a story. Conflict is the most important part of a fictional short story. Without conflict, there is no plot.
Conflicts can be separated into two main branches: Internal Conflict and External Conflict
External conflict:

*Protagonist- The central character in a conflict
*Antagonist- Any force arranged against the protagonist- whether persons, things, conventions of society,
or the protagonists own personality traits.
*Suspense- The quality in a story that makes readers ask “what’s going to happen next?”. In more literary
forms of fiction the suspense involves more “why” than “what”. Usually produced through two devices;
either mystery (an unusual set of circumstances for which the reader craves an explanation) or dilemma (a
position in which a character must choose between two courses of action, both undesirable.)
(ii) CHARACTERS/CHARACTERIZATION
Analyzing characterization is more difficult than describing plot; human nature is infinitely complex,
variable and ambiguous. It is much easier to describe what a person has done instead of who a person is.
 A writer can reveal a character in the following ways:
1. Letting up hear the character speak
2. Describing how the character looks & dresses
3. Letting us listen to the character’s inner thoughts and feelings
4. Revealing what other characters in the story think or say about the character
5. Showing us what the character does – how he or she acts
 Characters are presented in two different ways- directly and indirectly.
i. Direct Presentation- The reader is told straight out what the character is like. Telling us directly
what the character’s personality is like: cruel, sneaky, brace, etc.
ii. Indirect Presentation- The author shows the character through their actions; the reader determines
what the character is like by what they say or do. These call on the reader to take the information he
or she is given to interpret for himself/herself the kind of character he or she is reading about.
 Types of Characters
* Flat Characters- Usually have one or two predominant traits. A flat character is a character with little
to no complex emotions, motivations, or personality. They also don't undergo any kind of change to make
them more well-rounded. In other words, they're the opposite of a "round character," who has a fully fleshed
out profile and changes throughout the story.

*Round Characters- Complex and many faceted; have the qualities of real people. Round characters are
complex and undergo development, sometimes sufficiently to surprise the reader.
*Static Character- A character that remains essentially the same throughout.
(iii) SETTING
 Meaning
Setting is the time and place (or when and where) of the story. It’s a literary element of literature used in
novels, short stories, plays, films, etc., and usually introduced during the exposition (beginning) of the story,
along with the characters. The setting may also include the environment of the story, which can be made
up of the physical location, climate, weather, or social and cultural surroundings.
There are various ways that time and place indicate setting. Time can cover many areas, such as the
character’s time of life, the time of day, time of year, time period such as the past, present, or future,
etc. Place also covers a lot of areas, such as a certain building, room in a building, country, city, beach,
in a mode of transport such as a car, bus, boat, indoors or out, etc. The setting of a story can change
throughout the plot. The environment includes geographical location such as beach or mountains, the climate
and weather, and the social or cultural aspects such as a school, theatre, meeting, club, etc.
Example 1
A simple example to understand setting is the Disney movie “Cinderella.” The setting starts out as
Time: Cinderella as a young girl, long ago in the past
Place: Cinderella’s home in a kingdom far away
Example 2
Read this example below to see how setting is written into a story.
As the sun set in the evening sky, Malcolm slowly turned and walked toward his home. All was silent and
still. Through the window, he coul
d see his older brother James watching a football game on the TV. James was home from his first year of
college in the city. It was lonely at times, but Malcolm felt it was rather nice to not be in James’ shadow
during his senior year of high school.
Time: evening, senior year of high school, and modern times (they have a TV)
Place: Malcolm’s home, and possibly the suburbs or country (his brother has gone to the city for school).

 Types of Setting
There are two types of setting, each having its own purpose.
a. Backdrop setting
Have you ever read a story, but found it difficult to figure out what time period in which the story was
written or where it is? The story probably had a backdrop setting. The story is timeless and can happen at
any point in history or anywhere. The focus is on the lesson or message being delivered. Many fairy tales
and children’s stories have backdrop settings. “Winnie the Pooh” would be an example. Since the lessons
that the characters learn is the point rather than the time period, it’s hard to tack a “past, present, or future”
on the time aspect of the setting. It could also be any town or country, which means children anywhere can
relate to it.
b. Integral setting
With an integral setting (integral means to be a part of or important to), the time and place are important to
the story. For example, a story dealing with a historical setting will have a direct impact on the plot. A story
that happens in the 1800s will not have technology, so the characters will have to write a letter, ride a horse
or take a carriage to visit each other; they cannot travel long distances in one day as we do now with cars,
buses, and planes. This will have a direct impact on the events of the story, especially if there is distance
involved.
 The Importance of Setting
- Setting gives context to the characters’ actions in a story line.
- It can also create the mood (how the reader or viewer feels).
- It’s easier to understand why the characters in the story are doing what they’re doing when we know
where they are.
- The time of day, time of year, and ages of the characters will also affect how they act and what they
say.
- Without a setting, readers and viewers cannot follow a story plot.
 Examples of Setting in Literature
All good literature uses setting. No story can exist without an element of time or place. Here are some
popular examples.
Example 1
Elie Wiesel wrote “Night” in the 1950s, but his biography has been read by millions through the decades and
is still a popular book in schools. It’s the true and tragic account of Wiesel’s Jewish family during the

Holocaust of World War II.
AND THEN, one day all foreign Jews were expelled from Sighet. And Moishe the Beadle was a foreigner.
Crammed into cattle cars by the Hungarian police, they cried silently. Standing on the station platform, we
too were crying.
The train disappeared over the horizon; all that was left was thick, dirty smoke.
Behind me, someone said, sighing, ‘What do you expect?
That’s w a r… (Wiesel 1958).
In this passage, we have the name of the town and a location within the town (place). We know that it’s a
war (time). Since we know Wiesel survived World War II, we know it must be in the 1940s (time). The
description of human beings “crammed into cattle cars” creates a mood of sympathy that such a place could
be used for people.
(iv) THEME
The theme in a story is its underlying message, or 'big idea.' In other words, what critical belief about life is
the author trying to convey in the writing of a novel, play, short story or poem? This belief, or idea,
transcends cultural barriers. It is usually universal in nature. When a theme is universal, it touches on the
human experience, regardless of race or language. It is what the story means. Often, a piece of writing will
have more than one theme.
Think about some T.V. sitcoms you have seen that you have found trite and boring. Was there a significant
problem in the T.V. show that needed to be solved? Probably not. In much the same way, if a piece of
writing doesn't have deeper meaning than we can just see on the surface, it is just as shallow as the T.V.
sitcom. In order for writing to be meaningful and lasting, it needs to have a theme.
(v) POINT OF VIEW
"Point of view" (or p.o.v.) is the perspective from which a story is told.
Let's say we're examining a crime scene. The police may have 10 witnesses who all saw the same crime. Yet
they may give 10 different descriptions of what happened. Because they saw the same crime from different
angles and from different lengths of time, they may have different perspectives on what happened. These
different perspectives are called "points of view."

In prose and poetry, fiction or non-fiction, someone is always between the reader and the events inside the
writing. This "someone" is the author (as narrator), or the characters that the author creates. The narrator or
the characters are the "witnesses," and you - the reader - are the police officer. You'll have to use your
judgment to understand what exactly is going on.
There are different types of point of view. A story can be told from the first person ("I", "my") or from the
third person ("she", "they"). We can get into the minds of the characters ("omniscient") or we can simply see
them from the outside, like real life ("objective"). We can see the story from a main character who is central
to the plot, or from a minor character who is largely just an observer.
Here are the major types of point of view:
1. (3rd Person) Omniscient: Told from the P.O.V. of an outside narrator, the "omniscient" author
nevertheless gets inside the thoughts and feelings of any character he or she wishes (in other words,
two or more characters). This P.O.V. offers a lot of information, and is suitable for large, complex
novels. This was a common P.O.V. in 18th and 19th century novels [authors of the time often entered
the story as all-judging moralists], but it's much less common today.
2. 1st Person Central: This perspective is told from the P.O.V. of the main character. It allows the
author to bring the reader closer to the character, and create more sympathy for the character's
struggles. However, it also limits the reader to one person's perspective, and we don't have a broader,
more balanced point of view. Nevertheless, this view grants a sense of immediacy: we see everything
through this character's eyes. This uses "I" or '"my”
3. 2nd Person: This is a relatively rare point of view and is difficult to sustain. It is based upon the
address of one speaker to a second person. It uses the "you" and "your" pronouns throughout, which,
as you can imagine, is difficult to maintain without sounding repetitive. Here's an example: You will
receive the revised essay criteria by Tuesday, September 22. You will have an opportunity to respond
to it in writing before October 17. In fiction, the "you" being addressed is often a central character,
and the effect is to turn the reader into the character. A classic example of this is Will Baker's "Grace
Period".
Point of view is a major tool for an author. You can understand a lot about the craft of writing by
seeing how an author chooses his or her point of view. Ask yourself if the story would be
different if it was told from another point of view. How does it affect your feelings for the

characters, or your understanding of what is happening? Do you feel closely connected to a
particular character, or can you understand many of the characters, including the antagonist?
You'll be surprised by how different a story might be with these different perspectives.
REFLECTION QUESTIONS
(i) What do you understand by prose?
(ii) What is the function of prose?
(iii) What are the general elements of the language of prose fiction?
(iv)Carry out a stylistic analysis of the language of any prose fiction of your choice.
Aboh, R. (2008). Language and ideology in Ademola Dasylva’s Songs of Odamolugbe and Joe
Ushie’s Hill Songs. Unpublished M.A. project. Department of English. University of Ibadan.
Bradford, R. (1997). Stylistics. London and New York: Routledge.
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1.2. POETRY
 Meaning
Poetry is a type of literature based on the interplay of words and rhythm. It often employs rhyme and meter
(a set of rules governing the number and arrangement of syllables in each line). In poetry, words are strung
together to form sounds, images, and ideas that might be too complex or abstract to describe directly.
 Genres of poetry
(i) Epic poem
An epic poem is a lengthy, narrative work of poetry. These long poems typically detail extraordinary feats
and adventures of characters from a distant past. The word “epic” comes from the ancient Greek term
“epos,” which means “story, word, poem.”

 How Did Epics Originate?
Epic poems trace back to some of the earliest human civilizations—both European and Asian. Take
the Epic of Gilgamesh, considered by some scholars to be the oldest surviving example of great literature.
The poem is thought to have been written in approximately 2100 BC and traces back to ancient
Mesopotamia. It tells of the ancient king Gilgamesh, a descendant from the Gods, who embarks on a
journey to discover the secret of immortality.
 What Are the Characteristics of an Epic Poem?
The meter of epics varies depending on cultural custom. Ancient Greek epics and Latin epics were
typically composed in dactylic hexameter. Old Germanic epics (including those in Old English) typically
contained non-rhyming alliterative verse. Later English language epics were written in Spenserian stanzas
and blank verse. An archetypal epic poem typically:
 Is written in a formal style
 Contains third-person narration and an omniscient narrator
 Frequently invokes a Muse who provides inspiration and guidance to the poet
 Takes place in an era beyond the range of any living memory
 Typically includes a journey across a variety of settings and terrains
 Features a hero with immense bravery and resolve
 Includes obstacles and circumstances that are otherworldly and even supernatural—pitting the hero
against nearly insurmountable odds
 Looks with concern to the future of a civilization or culture
 Popular Examples of Epic Poems
Here are some examples of some of history’s greatest literary epics.
 Perhaps the most widely known epic poems are Homer’s The Iliad and The Odyssey, both of
which detail the events of the Trojan War and King Odysseus’s journey home from Troy. These
were written in Epic Greek (sometimes called Homeric Greek), although the dates of their
composition are unknown. Most classicists believe that Homer lived sometime between 850 and
650 BC and that his poems were committed to writing long after his death.

 The Mahābhārata is an ancient Indian epic composed in Sanskrit. The text as we know it appears
to date back to 400 BC, but scholars suspect its subject matter is thousands of years older—
perhaps dating back to the eighth or ninth centuries BC. At over 200,000 lines, it is considered the
longest poem ever written, and also contains prosed mixed in with poetry.
 The Aeneid is an epic poem written in Latin by the Roman poet Virgil. Historians place its writing
between 29 and 19 BC. The narrative poem, written in dactylic hexameter, tells of Aeneas,
descended from Trojans but a forebear to the Romans and Roman civilization. The story and
subject matter of the Aeneid is similar to Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, but it contains precision only
available to a poet who wrote down his compositions (as Virgil did). Homer, by contrast,
conveyed his tales orally.
 Beowulf is an Old English poem that was committed to writing between 975 and 1025 AD. No
author has ever been attributed to the poem, which pits the Scandinavian hero Beowulf against the
monster Grendel.
(ii) Pastoral poetry
Pastoral poetry is known for exploring the relationship between humans and nature, and for romanticizing
the ideals of a simple country life. The enduring popularity of the pastoral form of poetry suggests a wide
resonance with these ideals.
A pastoral poem explores the fantasy of withdrawing from modern life to live in an idyllic rural setting. All
pastoral poetry draws on the tradition of the ancient Greek poet Theocritus, who wrote romanticized visions
of shepherds living rich and fulfilled lives. No matter the form or structure the poetry takes, this focus on
idyllic country life is what characterizes it as pastoral poetry.
What Are the Origins of Pastoral Poetry?
Pastoral poetry originated in the Greek Hellenistic period when the poet Theocritus wrote about rural life in
the countryside. His poetry was later imitated in Latin by the Roman poet Virgil, who set his pastoral poems
in a fictionalized version of Arcadia. Arcadia is a region in Greece but in literature, came to be known as a
kind of bucolic utopia, where many pastoral poems are set. Virgil’s pastoral poems were famous for
emphasizing the contrast between urban and rural life; he also was influential in the way he used the pastoral
poem as a vehicle for political allegory.
Pastoral poetry was revived during the Renaissance, where it first made its way from Latin into Italian, and

then into Spanish, French, and English. An early, and influential, pastoral work in the English language was
Edmund Spenser’s The Shepheardes Calender (1579).
What Is the Purpose of a Pastoral Poem?
An overriding, defining theme of pastoral poems is the idea of an idealized vision of country life, in which
humans live simply and in harmony with nature. Other common themes and motifs that characterize the
pastoral mode include:
- A beautiful, natural setting
- Shepherds as central characters (who are often used as vehicles for political or religious allegory)
- Religious allegory in pastoral poetry is aided by the common association between Christianity and
shepherds/flocks of sheep
- The trope of a return to an idealized Golden Age, when humans lived in complete harmony with
nature
- Focus on imagined life in the country, rather than reality
- The working belief that country life is superior to urban life
(iii) Lyric Poem
A lyric poem is a short, emotionally expressive poem with a songlike quality that is narrated in the first
person. Unlike narrative poetry, which recounts events and tells a story, lyric poetry explores the
emotions of the speaker of the poem. Lyric poetry originated in ancient Greek literature and was
originally intended to be set to music, accompanied by a musical instrument called a lyre, which
resembles a small harp. Lyric poetry traditionally follows strict formal rules, but because there have been
many different types of lyric poetry over centuries, there are now various different forms of lyric poetry.
What Are the Origins of Lyric Poetry?
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle created three distinctions of poetry: lyrical, dramatic, and epic. The
lyric poem, in ancient Greece, was specifically meant to be accompanied by music from a lyre. The
Greek poet Pindar was one of the first famous lyric poets. When Romans translated lyric poetry to Latin
in the classical period, and the poems came to be recited and not sung, the meter and structure of the

poems remained. In Europe, during the Renaissance, poets created lyric poetry with influence from
ancient Greece, Persia, and China.
In the sixteenth century, William Shakespeare popularized lyric poetry in England. It remained dominant
in the seventeenth century thanks to poets like Robert Herrick, and later, in the nineteenth century,
through the work of poets including Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, and later on in the century,
Alfred Lord Tennyson.
Lyric poetry only began to go out of style with the arrival of modernist poets like Ezra Pound, T. S.
Eliot, and William Carlos Williams, who questioned its relevance and rebelled against its constraints.
(iv) Dramatic poetry
Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying, sometimes
related forms in many cultures. Greek tragedy in verse dates to the 6th century B.C., and may have been
an influence on the development of Sanskrit drama,
 Elements of poetry
As with narrative, there are "elements" of poetry that we can focus on to enrich our understanding of a
particular poem or group of poems. These elements may include:
- Persona
- Voice
- Diction
- Figures of speech: Symbolism, allegory, Imagery
- Rhythm and meter
- Structure.
While we may discuss these elements separately, please keep in mind that they are always acting
simultaneously in a story. It is difficult, for example, to discuss voice without talking about imagery, sound,
meter, diction and syntax. Above all, these elements reveal something about the poem's "theme," meaning,
or function.
(i) Persona
The voices we hear most of the times in poems are not always those of the poets. Poets sometimes adopt the

identity of some other person(s), real or imaginary, in a particular situation, also real or imaginary.
Whenever a poet adopts someone else’s personality or uses this device, he is said to be adopting a persona.
So, in examining a poem, we must first of all identify the voice. We need to know whether it is the poet
speaking directly or the poet is speaking through another voice. For example, in his poem entitled “Àbíkú”,
Soyinka speaks through the voice of an ‘àbíkú’ – a child born to die prematurely.
(ii) Voice or Sound
The sound pattern is a very significant point in elements and forms of poetry. This is embodied by the
poem’s meter or rhyme scheme, and the sound of words itself. Meter refers to the position of the accent
in a line (e.g. iambic, trochee, dactyl, etc.). Rhyme refers to the matching of end sounds of lines in a stanza.
The rhyming scheme depends solely on the poet: (a) The end sounds are of the same rhyme (AAAA), (b)
end sounds have alternative rhyming scheme (ABAB), or (c) grouped rhyming e.g. first and second lines
have the same rhyme, third and fourth have the same rhyme (AABBCC)
(iii) Diction
Simply put, diction refers to word choice and is intimately related to imagery and figures of speech because
a poet chooses a word to achieve a certain sensory, emotional, or intellectual effect. Choosing "wandered,"
for example, suggests something different than, say, "walked around," "shuffled," "drifted," "floated,"
etc., for each word suggests a different attitude, image, or connection. Your job is to explore the possibilities,
always broadening the meaning and linking it with other words and images.
(iv) Figures of Speech
Figures of speech refer to special kinds of language use. We already mentioned metaphor and simile, but
there is also personification (giving inanimate objects or abstract concepts human qualities), synecdoche
(using a part of something to convey the whole), metonymy ("substituting an attribute of a thing for the
thing itself"), or litotes (understatement). Again, these figures of speech depend on word choice within a
specific context. Saying, for example, "My pen sings on paper" is an example of personification because
we have given a human quality to an object, but to achieve this effect we had to choose the verb "sings"
instead of something else. The result is also metaphorical because the verb "to sing" is usually not used when
we talk about pens.
Symbol and allegory is merely the widespread or extended use of metaphor. In other words, if we use a

single metaphor to structure an entire poem or story, we are in the realm of allegory. If the poet uses a
metaphor that has often been used in a particular way (i.e. water to convey birth and death; spring to convey
birth, and winter to convey death; green suggests fertility and growth while black suggests death or evil;
deserts suggest death or infertility, etc.) then we are in the realm of symbolism, but symbolism also refers to
any use of an object, person, or place that represents something beyond itself. The "symbolic" significance
always depends on interpretation and therefore must be read in context.
Examples of figure of speech
1. HYPERBOLE
It is a conscious exaggeration used for dramatic or comic effect. It is an extreme exaggeration used to make
a point. It is like the opposite of “understatement.” Hyperboles are comparisons, like similes and
metaphors, but are more extravagant. Here are some common examples of hyperboles:
 I am so hungry I could eat a whole elephant.
 I have a million things to do.
 I had a ton of homework.
 He is as skinny as a toothpick.
 This car goes faster than the speed of light.
 He has million problems.
 We are so poor; we don’t have two cents to rub together.
 He's got tons of money.
 You could have knocked me over with a feather.
 I'll love you, dear, I'll love you till China and Africa meet.
2. EUPHEMISM
It is a figure of speech in which an indirect statement is substituted for a direct one in an effort to avoid
bluntness or harshness. Euphemism is a realization of semantic change. A euphemism is a polite word
or phrase, which is used to describe a controversial or indiscreet activity. It is a substitute word, which
is often more socially or politically correct. We use euphemism for dealing with taboo or sensitive
subjects. It is therefore the language of evasion, hypocrisy, prudery, and deceit. Euphemisms are often
employed in discussions of sex, violence, bodily functions, and other topics that could be considered
offensive or taboo in everyday conversation. Euphemisms can also make the dialogue sound more

poetic, of higher class, or more proper. Of course, in contemporary literature, many words or phrases
once referred to by euphemistic expressions are now described in a more straight forward manner.
 Pre-owned - for used or second-hand
 Enhanced interrogation - for torture
 Industrial action - for strike
 Misspoke - for lie
 Tactical withdrawal - for retreat
 Revenue augmentation - for raising taxes
 Wind - for belch or fart
 Convenience fee - for surcharge
 Courtesy reminder - for bill
 Unlawful combatant - for prisoner of war
 He passed away= He passed on= He kicked the basket ( meaning He died)
 Abagororwa( instead of Abanyururu) Ex: Maize grain stands for bullets piece (A Grain of
Wheat, p88)
 Correctional center (instead of prison)
3. PERSONIFICATION
Personification gives non-human objects human characteristics. Personification is when you give an object
or animal human behaviors. An example of personification would be in the nursery rhyme “Hey Diddle
Diddle,” where “the little dog laughed to see such fun.” Anthropomorphism is when you make an object or
animal dress and behave like a human.
Example:
 Lightning danced across the sky.
 The wind howled in the night.
 The car complained as the key was
roughly turned in its ignition.
 Rita heard the last piece of pie calling
her name.
 My alarm clock yells at me to get out
of bed every morning.
 The avalanche devoured anything
standing in its way.
 The door protested as it opened slowly.
 My house is a friend who protects me.
 The moon played hide and seek with
the clouds.
 The approaching car's headlights
winked at me.

 The camera loves her since she is so
pretty.
 The stairs groaned as we walked on
them.
 Our vacuum hums a happy tune while
it cleans.
 My flowers were begging for water.
 The ivy wove its fingers around the
fence.
 The thunder was grumbling in the
distance.
 The cactus saluted those who drove
past.
 The wildfire ran through the forest at
an amazing speed.
 The moon smiled at the stars in the sky.
 The leaves waved in the wind.
 Time flies when you're having fun.
4. IMAGERY
The author’s attempt to create a mental picture (or reference point) in the mind of the reader. Remember,
though the most immediate forms of imagery are visual, strong and effective imagery can be used to invoke
an emotional, sensational (taste, touch, smell etc) or even physical response.
As noted earlier, word choices create images, the "concrete representation of a sense impression, feeling,
or idea. Images may invoke our sight, hearing, sense of smell and taste, and tactile perceptions." Imagery
refers to a pattern of related details. When images form patterns of related details that convey an idea or
feeling beyond what the images literally describe, we call them metaphorical or symbolic. The details
suggest one thing in terms of another.
For example, images of light often convey knowledge and life, while images of darkness suggest
ignorance or death. This leap from one image to its symbolic counterpart is based on an interpretive act and
must be done in context.
For example, white is usually associated with purity, cleanliness, and virginity, but in Moby Dick the great
whale is white and suggests absolute evil, but the use that symbolic color is consistent within the novel.
5. IRONY
Irony is a literary device in which contradictory statements or situations reveal a reality that is different from
what appears to be true. There are many forms of irony featured in literature. The effectiveness of irony as a
literary device depends on the reader’s expectations and understanding of the disparity between what
“should” happen and what “actually” happens in a literary work. This can be in the form of an unforeseen
outcome of an event, a character’s unanticipated behavior, or something incongruous that is said.

It is a form of stating one thing and meaning another. Irony is categorized as follows:
a. Verbal Irony: This is the simplest form of irony, in which the speaker says the opposite of what he or
she intends. There are several forms, including euphemism, understatement, sarcasm, and some
forms of humor.
Examples:
 Telling a quiet group, “don’t everybody speak all at once”
 Coming home to a big mess and saying, “it’s great to be back”
 Telling a rude customer to “have a nice day”
 Walking into an empty theater and asking, “it’s too crowded”
 Stating during a thunderstorm, “beautiful weather we’re having”
 An authority figure stepping into the room saying, “don’t bother to stand or anything”
 A comedian telling an unresponsive audience, “you all are a great crowd”
 Describing someone who says foolish things a “genius”
 Delivering bad news by saying, “the good news is”
 Entering a child’s messy room and saying “nice place you have here”
b. Situational irony: This is when the author creates a surprise that is the perfect opposite of what one
would expect, often creating either humor or an eerie feeling.
Examples:
 A t-shirt with a “Buy American” logo that is made in China
 Marriage counselor divorcing third wife
 Sending a Christmas card to someone who is Jewish
 A dentist needing a root canal
 A police station being burglarized
6. JUXTAPOSITION
When the author places two themes, characters, phrases, words, or situations together for the purpose of
comparison or contrast (Life and death, young and old, day and night...). Juxtaposition is a literary device
that implies comparison or contrast. Writers create juxtaposition by placing two entities side by side to create
dramatic or ironic contrast. Juxtaposition is a form of implied comparison in that there is no overt
comparison or inference on the part of the writer. This allows the reader to discern how the paired entities

are similar or different. The effect of this literary device is a more profound understanding of contrast and
creating a sense of fate or inevitability in the comparison.
Writers use juxtaposition for rhetorical effect by placing two entities side by side in order to highlight their
differences. These divergent elements can include people, ideas, things, places, behaviors, and
characteristics.
Here are some common examples of entities that are juxtaposed for artistic effect:
 light and darkness
 acceptance and isolation
 youth and experience
 wealth and poverty
 Beauty and ugliness
 virtue and vice
 family and outsiders
 wisdom and foolishness
 familiar and strange
 passion and apathy
 good and evil
 urban and rural
 warmth and cold
 modern and antiquated
 courage and cowardice
 male and female
 jealousy and trust
 civilization and nature
 free will and fate
 forgiveness and revenge
7. LITOTES
It is a form of understatement in which a thing is affirmed by stating the negative of its opposite. Litotes is a
common device in ironic expressions.
Ex. How are you? Not so bad (= I am all right); He was not unmindful (=he gave careful attention)
Litotes is a figure of speech featuring a phrase that utilizes negative wording or terms to express a positive
assertion or statement. Litotes is a common literary device, most often used in speech, rhetoric, and
nonfiction. As a figure of speech, the meaning of litotes is not literal. Instead, litotes is intended to be a form
of understatement by using negation to express the contrary meaning. This is a clever use of language in its
combination of negative terms as a function to express a positive sentiment or statement.
Litotes is commonly used as an understatement or ironic figure of speech. It is a successful device in that it
affirms a positive statement or sentiment typically through the use of double negatives.
Here are some common examples of litotes you may find in everyday conversation:
 The novel is not bad.  You’re not wrong.

 I can’t disagree with your logic.
 My feelings are not unhurt.
 He is hardly unattractive.
 That lesson is not hard.
 My car was not cheap.
 I won’t argue with the referee.
 Visiting family is not uncommon.
 The results are not inaccurate.
 That compliment is not unwelcome.
 I can’t turn down that offer.
 The weather is not unpleasant.
 His answer was hardly a whisper.
 Her decision is not the worst.
 The test came back not negative.
 That dress is not unlike mine.
 I can’t say that I won’t try the dessert.
 Your effort has not gone unnoticed
8. METONYMY
Metonymy is a formal metaphor which is characterized by substitution of terms.. Often it is used to represent
the whole of an abstract idea. This is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is called not by its own
name but rather by the name of something associated in meaning with that thing or concept.
Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one object or idea takes the place of another with which it has a
close association. In fact, metonymy means “change of name.” As a literary device, it is a way of replacing
an object or idea with something related to it instead of stating what is actually meant. Metonymy enables
writers to express a word or thought in a different way by using a closely related word or thought. Therefore,
this is a method for writers to vary their expression and produce an effect for the reader.
Here are some examples of metonymy that may be found in everyday expression:
 Hollywood (represents associations with the movie industry)
 Turf (represents associations with area of residence or expertise)
 Feds (represents associations with government law enforcement)
 Press (represents associations with news organizations)
 Breeze (represents associations with something that is simple, straightforward, or easy)
 Broadway (represents associations with New York drama productions and stage fame)
 Coast (represents associations with seaside, ocean area, regions of land near water)
 Booze (represents associations with alcohol or liquor)
 Academics (represents associations with school, college, university, classes, or studying)

 Management (represents associations with administration, leadership, or person in charge of
something)
Usage of Metonymy in Speech or Writing
 When I came to visit, my friend offered me a cup. (Cup is metonymy for a beverage such as tea or
coffee)
 I wish he would keep his nose out of the plans. (Nose is metonymy for interest or attention)
 During illness, fluids are often essential for recovery. (Fluids is metonymy for hydrating substances)
 While I’m sleeping, my dog tries to steal the covers. (Covers is metonymy for bed linens, blankets,
quilts, etc.)
 This class is more intelligent and engaged than the last one. (Class is metonymy for a group of
students)
 Today at lunch, I sat with the jocks. (Jocks is metonymy for athletes)
 Next week, my boyfriend and I are headed to the altar. (Altar is metonymy for getting married)
9. ONOMATOPOEIA
This includes words that sound like their meaning, or imitations of sounds. Example: "The bees were
buzzing". This is the most obvious of all sound effects. It is the use of words whose sounds suggest their
meanings. The most simple examples are words which are the names given to actual sounds.
Onomatopoeia, pronounced on-uh-mat-uh–pee–uh, is defined as a word which imitates the natural sounds of
a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and
interesting.
For example, some bells ring, tinkle, clang; a cat mews, a lion roars and cars screech. There can
also be a splash of water and a booming of a gun.
 The buzzing bee flew away.
 The sack fell into the river with a splash.
 The books fell on the table with a loud thump.
 He looked at the roaring
 The rustling leaves kept me awake.
10. PARADOX
A phrase that appears to be contradictory. Paradox is used to attract attention or secure emphasis. Paradox is
a statement which seems untrue at first sight but proves valid on closer inspection. It is a fundamental

element of poetic language. A paradox is a statement that appears at first to be contradictory, but upon
reflection then makes sense. This literary device is commonly used to engage a reader to discover an
underlying logic in a seemingly self-contradictory statement or phrase. As a result, paradox allows readers to
understand concepts in a different and even non-traditional way.
There are many common examples of paradox in everyday conversation and writing.
Here are some well-known and familiar uses of this literary device:
 less is more
 do the thing you think you cannot do
 you’re damned if you do and damned if
you don’t
 the enemy of my enemy is my friend
 the beginning of the end
 if you don’t risk anything, you risk
everything
 earn money by spending it
 nobody can make you feel inferior without
your consent
 The Pen is Mightier Than the Sword
 the more you give, the more you get
 living in the present for the future
 the best way out is always through
 the louder you are, the less they hear
 impossible is not a word in my vocabulary
 the only constant is change
 He was glad to finally be punished for his
crimes.
 War is peace
 Freedom is slavery
 I die, yet depart not
 Love puts in when friendship is gone
11. PARALLELISM
It is a literary device that consists a structural arrangement of parts of sentences, paragraphs or larger units of
composition by which one element of equal importance with another are similarly developed and phrased. It
has anaphora in itself (at the beginning). Parallelism is the repetition of grammatical elements in writing and
speaking. Parallelism influences the grammatical structure of sentences but can also impact the meaning of
thoughts and ideas being presented. Many common phrases feature parallelism through repetition of words,
structure, or other grammatical elements. This calls attention to the wording and can emphasize the phrase’s
meaning.

Here are some common examples of parallelism:
 He that will cheat at play, will cheat you
any way
 Stupid is as stupid does
 Cousins by chance; friends by choice
 Luck is the idol of the idle
 No pain, no gain
 In for a penny, in for a pound
 You get what you get
 Where there is smoke, there is fire
 When the going gets tough, the tough get
going
 It takes one to know one
 Have money in your head, not in your
heart
 I think, therefore i am
 Don’t marry someone you can life with;
marry someone you can’t live without
 Today a reader, tomorrow a leader
 Fool me once, shame on you; fool me
twice, shame on me

12. METAPHOR
A metaphor is a figure of speech that identifies one thing as being the same as some unrelated other thing,
thus strongly implying the similarities between the two. A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a
comparison between two unlike things. As a literary device, metaphor creates implicit comparisons without
the express use of “like” or “as.” Metaphor is a means of asserting that two things are identical in
comparison rather than just similar. This is useful in literature for using specific images or concepts to state
abstract truths.
There are many common examples of metaphor in everyday conversation and writing. Here are some well-
known uses of this figure of speech:
Laughter is the best medicine.
His heart of stone surprised me.
There is a weight on my shoulder.
Time is money.
No man is an island.
Age is a state of mind.
Last night I slept the sleep of the dead.
The new parents had stars in their eyes.
The criminal has blood on his hands.
There is a garden in her face.
Your argument is a slippery slope.
We found it under a blanket of sand.
I’m pleased to meet your better half.
You are the sunshine of my life.
13. SMILE
A simile is a figure of speech in which two essentially dissimilar objects or concepts are expressly
compared with one another through the use of “like” or “as.” Simile is used as a literary device to assert
similarity with the help of like or as, which are language constructs that establish equivalency. A proper
simile creates an explicit comparison between two things that are different enough from each other such that
their comparability appears unlikely:
There are many common examples of simile used in everyday conversation and writing.
Here are some well-known phrases that utilize this figure of speech:
 Nutty as a fruitcake
 Slept like a log
 Sly as a fox
 Fits like a glove
 Cool as a cucumber
 Blind as a bat
 Light as a feather
 Like watching paint dry
 Works like a charm

 Old as the hills
 Pretty as a picture
 Hurts like the devil
 Strong as an ox
 Fight like cats and dogs
 Sparkle like diamonds
 Cheeks like roses
 Flat as a pancake
 Eyes like glass
 Sweet as sugar
 Dull as a doorknob
 Bright as the sun
 Tough as nails
 Smart as a whip
 Mad as a hatter
 Happy as a clam
 It is as cold as ice
 Black as charcoal
 Short as hammer
 White as ice
 Hard as a stone
Examples of Similes for Love
One of the most common concepts to feature simile as a literary device is love. Here are some memorable
lines and quotes that showcase simile as an effective comparison for describing love:
 Love is like war: easy to begin but very hard to stop. (H.L. Mencken)
 Life without love is like a tree without blossoms or fruit. (Khalil Gibran)
 Love is like a friendship caught on fire. (Bruce Lee)
 Love is like a faucet; it turns off and on. (Billie Holiday)
 And she said losing love is like a window in your heart; everybody sees you’re blown apart;
everybody sees the wind blow (Paul Simon)
 Keep love in your heart. A life without it is like a sunless garden when the flowers are dead.
(Oscar Wilde)
 Love is like the wild rose-briar (Emily Bronte)
 Falling out of love is like losing weight. It’s a lot easier putting it on than taking it off. (Aretha
Franklin)
 Love is like a beautiful flower which I may not touch, but whose fragrance makes the garden a
place of delight just the same. (Helen Keller)
 Love is like the measles. The older you get it, the worse the attack. (Rainer Maria Rilke)
Famous Examples of Simile
Simile is also found in many famous examples of poetry, prose, drama, lyrics, and even clever quotations.
Here are some famous examples of simile:
 Easy Like Sunday Morning (Lionel Richie)
 All those moments will be lost in time, like… tears in rain. (Blade Runner)

 Life is like riding a bicycle. To keep your balance, you must keep moving. (Albert Einstein)
 That’s always seemed so ridiculous to me, that people want to be around someone because
they’re pretty. It’s like picking your breakfast cereal based on color instead of taste. (John
Green)
 Not forgiving is like drinking rat poison and then waiting for the rat to die. (Anne Lamott)
 Writing a novel is like driving a car at night. You can see only as far as your headlights, but you
can make the whole trip that way. (E.L. Doctorow)
 Parents are like God because you wanna know they’re out there, and you want them to think well
of you, but you really only call when you need something. (Chuck Palahniuk)
 Time was passing like a hand waving from a train I wanted to be on. (Jonathan Safran Foer)
 Being with her I feel a pain, like a frozen knife stuck in my chest. (Haruki Murakami)
 Her hair, like golden threads, play’d with her breath. (William Shakespeare)
 Life swings like a pendulum backward and forward between pain and boredom. (Arthur
Schopenhauer)
 Life is like writing with a pen. You can cross out your past but you can’t erase it. (E.B. White)
 The pain is like an axe that chops my heart. (Yann Martel)
 We are like roses that have never bothered to bloom when we should have bloomed and it is as if
the sun has become disgusted with waiting. (Charles Bukowski)
14. TAUTOLOGY
Tautology is a literary device used by writers to say something more than once, using the same words or
synonymous words. The intent of this device is to emphasize a point or idea for an audience or reader.
Depending on the effectiveness of tautology in a written work, it can be seen as redundant and
needless repetition, or it can be considered poetic license
The word tautology is from the Greek word tauto, meaning “same,” and Logos, meaning “word or idea.”
This literary device can refer to a phrase, sentence, or even paragraph that reiterates the same idea using
different words or repeats the meaning, despite appearing to provide new context or information. When used
effectively, tautology can provide emphasis or clarity, or even create ambiguity that is intentional.
Common Examples of Tautology in Everyday Speech
Tautology can be found in many phrases that people frequently use, though most are unaware of the
predominantly needless repetition of words or phrases.

Here are some common examples of tautology in everyday speech:
 PIN number (personal
identification number
number)
 over-exaggerate
 free gift
 return back
 more and more
 close proximity
 it is what it is
 repeat again
 hot water heater
 VIN number (vehicle
identification number
number)
 necessary requirement
 frozen ice
 over and over
 personal opinion
 share and share alike
 minute to minute
 six in one, half-dozen
the other
 refer back
(iv) SOUND PATTERNS
1. ALLITERATION
Alliteration is a literary device that reflects repetition in two or more nearby words of initial consonant
sounds. Alliteration does not refer to the repetition of consonant letters that begin words, but rather the
repetition of the consonant sound at the beginning of words. For example, the phrase “kids’ coats” is
alliterative; though the words begin with different consonant letters, they produce the same consonant
sounds. Similarly, the phrase “phony people” is not alliterative; though both words begin with the same
consonant, the initial consonant sounds are different. In addition, for alliteration to be effective, alliterative
words should flow in quick succession. If there are too many non-alliterative words in between, then the
literary device is not purposeful.
People use alliterative phrases frequently in everyday conversation. These phrases can sometimes sound
cliché; however, they are effective in expressing both broad and familiar meaning.
Here are some examples of alliteration in everyday speech:
 Rocky road
 Big business
 Kissing cousins
 Jumping jacks
 No nonsense
 Tough talk
 Quick question
 Money matters
 Picture perfect
 High heaven

2. ASSONANCE
Assonance is a literary device in which the repetition of similar vowel sounds takes place in two or more
words in proximity to each other within a line of poetry or prose. Assonance most often refers to the
repetition of internal vowel sounds in words that do not end the same. For example, “he fell asleep under
the cherry tree” is a phrase that features assonance with the repetition of the long “e” vowel, despite the
fact that the words containing this vowel do not end in perfect rhymes. This allows writers the means of
emphasizing important words in a phrase or line, as well as creating a sense of rhythm, enhancing mood, and
offering a lyrical effect of words and sounds.
Many common phrases utilize assonance. People use them in everyday speech for emphasis or to reflect
mood.
Here are some examples of common uses of assonance:
 Son of a gun
 The cat is out of the bag
 Dumb luck
 After awhile, crocodile
 Chips and dip
 Cock of the walk
 Goodnight, sleep tight, don’t let the
bedbugs bite
 Stranger danger
 Winner, winner, chicken dinner
 Motion of the ocean
 Keep your eyes on the prize
 Lean, mean, fighting machine
 Wild child
 Surf and turf
Examples of Assonance in Song
Assonance is a useful device when it comes to song lyrics and titles. Here are some examples of assonance
in well-known songs:
 “Those Lazy-Hazy-Crazy Days of Summer” (Hans Carste)
 “I recall Central Park in fall” (“Danke Schoen” Wayne Newton)
 “Rock Around the Clock” (Bill Haley and His Comets)
 “The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain” (musical “My Fair Lady”)
 “Back in Black” (AC/DC)
 “Oh, give me a home where the buffalo roam” (“Home on the Range” Daniel E. Kelley and
Brewster M. Higley)

 “Only the Lonely” (Roy Orbison)
 “Say hey, good lookin’. Whatcha got cookin’?” (“Hey Good Lookin'” Hank Williams, Jr.)
 “Crocodile Rock” (Elton John)
 “Light My Fire” (The Doors)
 “Silent night, holy night, all is calm, all is bright” (“Silent Night” Joseph Mohr)
3. RHYME
It is a sound technique which consists of the repetition of identical or similar sounds, usually accented vowel
sounds and succeeding consonant sounds at the end of words, and often at the ends of lines of prose or
poetry. Rhyme is a literary device, featured particularly in poetry, in which identical or similar concluding
syllables in different words are repeated. Rhyme most often occurs at the ends of poetic lines. In addition,
rhyme is principally a function of sound rather than spelling. For example, words rhyme that end with the
same vowel sound but have different spellings: day, prey, weigh, bouquet. This is true for words with the
same consonant ending as well: vain, rein, lane. Rhyme is therefore predominantly independent of the way
words look or are spelled. Writers use rhymes as a way to create sound patterns in order to emphasize certain
words and their relationships with others in an artistic manner.
There are many types of rhyme, particularly in poetry. Here are some common examples of rhyme forms:
 Perfect Rhyme: This rhyme form features two words that share the exact assonance and number of
syllables, and is also known as a true rhyme. (skylight and twilight)
Example by Sylvia Chidi
If a poem could cost a dime
I will spend my ink and spend my time
Making the perfect rhyme
More than a million people may read it
Even if I have to sell it on credit
I will be the businesswoman with wit
Sit down! Think about it!
A penny for the perfect sentence
A penny for a poem glaring with essence
A penny for writing about the present and past tense

A penny for describing a situation that is intense
A penny if I write truthfully without pretence
As I turn away from crime
Making the perfect rhyme
 Slant Rhymes: This rhyme form features words with similar but not exact assonance and/or number
of syllables. This is also known as half rhyme or imperfect rhyme. (grieve and believe). A slant
rhyme is a type of rhyme with words that have similar, but not identical sounds. Most slant rhymes
are formed by words with identical consonants and different vowels, or vice versa. “Worm” and
“swarm” are examples of slant rhymes. ... “Sky” and “high” are examples of perfect rhymes
Example:
1. Ozymandias
"Ozymandias" by Percy Byssche Shelley is another excellent slant rhyme example in poetry. This sonnet
uses a complex rhyme scheme filled with oblique rhymes. The first four lines, which have the rhyming
pattern ABAB, use a near rhyme of "stone" and "frown."
I met a traveller from an antique land,
Who said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand,
Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown
2. How Do I Love Thee?
Elizabeth Barrett Browning's famous love sonnet "How Do I Love Thee?" is another great example of slant
rhyme in poetry. Here, the rhyme scheme is ABBA in the first four lines, but she makes an approximate
rhyme of "ways" and "Grace."
How do I love thee? Let me count the ways.
I love thee to the depth and breadth and height
My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight
For the ends of Being and ideal of Grace.

 Eye Rhymes: This rhyme form features two words that appear similar when read, but do not actually
rhyme when spoken or pronounced. (Mood and hood; move and dove)
Eye Rhymes are also called “visual rhyme” or “sight rhyme”. For example: tough, cough, plough,
dough, and slough look incredibly similar but each word is pronounced differently and none of them rhyme
in the conventional aural rhyme sense.
Example: The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope
Here Britain’s statesmen oft the fall foredoom
Of foreign tyrants and of nymphs at home;
Here thou, great Anna! whom three realms obey,
Dost sometimes counsel take—and sometimes tea.
In this excerpt, it’s clear that Pope is using two examples of eye rhymes, “foredoom” and “home,” as well
as “obey” and “tea.” It’s easy to shift one’s pronunciation to make these words rhyme, but it would be very
uncommon to rhyme them in contemporary English.
 Masculine Rhyme: This rhyming form takes place between the final stressed syllables of two lines.
(compare and repair)
 Feminine Rhyme: This rhyming form features multi-syllables in which stressed and unstressed
syllables rhyme with each other, respectively. (lazy and crazy)
 End Rhymes: These are rhymes that occur between the final words of two consecutive lines of
poetry or non-consecutive lines following rhyme scheme in a stanza.
4. RHYTHM
The word rhythm is derived from rhythmos (Greek) which means, “measured motion.” Rhythm is a literary
device that demonstrates the long and short patterns through stressed and unstressed syllables, particularly in
verse form.
5. METER
Meter is a literary device that works as a structural element in poetry. Essentially, meter is the basic
rhythmic structure of a line within a poem or poetic work. Meter functions as a means of imposing a specific

number of syllables and emphasis when it comes to a line of poetry that adds to its musicality. It consists of
the number of syllables and the pattern of emphasis on those syllables. In addition, meter governs individual
units within a line of poetry, called “feet.” A “foot” of a poetic work features a specific number of syllables
and pattern of emphasis
Common Examples of Metrical Feet
For English poetry, metrical feet generally feature two or three syllables. They are categorized by a specific
combination of stressed and unstressed syllables. The most common examples of metrical feet include:
 Trochee: stressed syllable followed by unstressed syllable, as in “custom”
 Iamb: unstressed syllable followed by stressed syllable, as in “describe”
 Spondee: equal stress for both syllables, as in “cupcake”
 Dactyl: stressed syllable, followed by two unstressed syllables, as in “bicycle”
 Anapest: two unstressed syllables, followed by a stressed syllable, as in “understand”
The repetition of metrical feet in a line of poetry creates poetic meter, like beats in music. The length of a
poetic meter is labeled with Greek suffixes:
 one foot = monometer
 two feet = dimeter
 three feet = trimeter
 four feet = Iatetrameter
 five feet = pentameter
 six feet = hexameter
 seven feet = heptameter
 eight feet = octameter
6. STANZA
A stanza is a group of lines that form the basic metrical unit in a poem. So, in a 12-line poem, the first four
lines might be a stanza. You can identify a stanza by the number of lines it has and its rhyme scheme or

pattern, such as A-B-A-B. There are many different types of stanzas.
Examples of Different Types of Stanzas in Poems
Stanzas are categorized by the number of lines included in them. You will often see an empty line after a
stanza in a poem. Take a look at these sonnet examples to see which types of stanzas jump out at you.
(i) Couplet
A couplet is a stanza with two lines that rhyme.
For example:
"But if thou live, remember'd not to be,
Die single, and thine image dies with thee."
- “Sonnet III,” William Shakespeare
(ii) Tercet
A tercet is a stanza with three lines that may or may not rhyme. Tercets are also known as triplets.
For example:
"Oh Galuppi, Baldassaro, this is very sad to find!
I can hardly misconceive you; it would prove me deaf and blind;
But although I take your meaning, 'tis with such a heavy mind!"
- “A Toccata of Galuppi’s,” Robert Browning
(iii) Quatrain
A quatrain is a stanza with four lines that may or may not rhyme.
For example:
"He gives his harness bells a shake
To ask if there is some mistake.
The only other sound’s the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake."
- “Stopping by Woods On a Snowy Evening,” Robert Frost
(iv) Quintain
A quintain is a stanza with five lines that may or may not rhyme.
For example:
"In the golden lightning

Of the sunken sun,
O'er which clouds are bright'ning,
Thou dost float and run,
Like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun."
-“Ode to a Skylark,” Percy Bysshe Shelley
(v) Sestet
A sestet is a stanza with six lines that may or may not rhyme.
For example:
"And when I feel, fair creature of an hour!
That I shall never look upon thee more,
Never have relish in the faery power
Of unreflecting love — then on the shore
Of the wide world I stand alone, and think
Till Love and Fame to nothingness do sink."
- “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be,” John Keats
(vi) Septet
A septet is a stanza with seven lines that may or may not rhyme.
For example:
"But our love it was stronger by far than the love
Of those who were older that we —
Of many far wiser than we —
And neither the angels in Heaven above,
Nor the demons down under the sea,
Can ever dissever my soul from soul
Of the beautiful Annabel Lee;"
-“Annabel Lee,” Edgar Allan Poe
(vii) Octave
An octave is a stanza with eight lines that may or may not rhyme.
For example:
"When I consider how my light is spent,
Ere half my days in this dark world and wide,

Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
'Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?'
I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent"
- “Sonnet 19: When I consider how my light is spent,” John Milton
(i) What is poetry? Give the titles of three poems that you have read?
(ii) Identify and explain at least three forms/types of poetry. Give appropriate examples.
(iii) What are the essential features of the language of poetry?
(iv)Carry out a stylistic analysis of the language of any poem of your choice.
Knights, L.C. (1976). Explorations. U.K: Chatto & Windus Ltd. Ogungbesan, K. & Woolger, D. (1978).
Images and Impressions: An
Oxford Senior Poetry Course. Oxford: University Press.
Sherman, M. (1986). Reading Literature. U.S. A: McDougal, Littel & Company.
Untermeyer, L. (1985). The Pursuit of Poetry. New York: SratfordPress.
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1.3. DRAMA
 Definition of Drama
Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. It is one of the literary
genres, which is an imitation of some action. Drama is also a type of a play written for theater, television,
radio, and film.
In simple words, a drama is a composition in verse or prose presenting a story in pantomime or dialogue. It
contains conflict of characters, particularly the ones who perform in front of audience on the stage. The
person who writes drama for stage directions is known as a “dramatist” or “playwright.”

 Types of Drama
Let us consider a few popular types of drama:
1) Comedy – Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary works, and provide a happy conclusion.
The intention of dramatists in comedies is to make their audience laugh. Hence, they use quaint
circumstances, unusual characters, and witty remarks.
2) Tragedy – Tragic dramas use darker themes, such as disaster, pain, and death. Protagonists often
have a tragic flaw — a characteristic that leads them to their downfall.
3) Farce – Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama, which often overacts or engages
slapstick humor.
4) Melodrama – Melodrama is an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and appeals directly to
the senses of the audience. Just like the farce, the characters are of a single dimension and simple,
or may be stereotyped.
5) Musical Drama – In musical dramas, dramatists not only tell their stories through acting and
dialogue, but through dance as well as music. Often the story may be comedic, though it may also
involve serious subjects.
 Function of Drama
Drama is one of the best literary forms through which dramatists can directly speak to their readers, or
the audience, and they can receive instant feedback of audiences. A few dramatists use their characters
as a vehicle to convey their thoughts and values, such as poets do with personas, and novelists do with
narrators. Since drama uses spoken words and dialogues, thus language of characters plays a vital role, as
it may give clues to their feelings, personalities, backgrounds, and change in feelings. In dramas the
characters live out a story without any comments of the author, providing the audience a direct
presentation of characters’ life experiences.
 Elements of Drama
The six Aristotelian elements of drama are, plot, character, thought, diction, spectacle, and song. Out of
these, the first two are the most important ones according to Aristotle.

Drama can be defined as a dramatic work that actors present on stage. A story is dramatized, which means
the characters and events in the story are brought to life through a stage performance by actors who play
roles of the characters in the story and act through its events, taking the story forward. In enacting the roles,
actors portray the character’s emotions and personalities. The story progresses through verbal and non-
verbal interactions between the characters, and the presentation is suitably supplemented by audio and visual
effects.
Through the characters involved, the story has a message to give. It forms the central theme of the play
around which the plot is built. While some consider music and visuals as separate elements, others prefer to
club them under staging which can be regarded as an independent element of drama. Lighting, sound effects,
costumes, makeup, gestures or body language given to characters, the stage setup, and the props used can
together be considered as symbols that are elements of drama. What dictates most other dramatic elements is
the setting; that is the time period and location in which the story takes place. This Buzzle article introduces
you to the elements of drama and their importance.
(i) Theme
The theme of a play refers to its central idea. It can either be clearly stated through dialog or action, or can be
inferred after watching the entire performance. The theme is the philosophy that forms the base of the story
or a moral lesson that the characters learn. It is the message that the play gives to the audience. For example,
the theme of a play could be of how greed leads to one’s destroyal, or how the wrong use of authority
ultimately results in the end of power. The theme of a play could be blind love or the strength of selfless love
and sacrifise, or true friendship. For example, the play Romeo and Juliet, is based on a brutal and
overpowering romantic love between Romeo and Juliet that forces them to go to extremes, finally leading
them to self-destruction.
(ii) Plot
The order of events occurring in a play make its plot. Essentially, the plot is the story that the play narrates.
The entertainment value of a play depends largely on the sequence of events in the story. The connection
between the events and the characters in them form an integral part of the plot. What the characters do, how
they interact, the course of their lives as narrated by the story, and what happens to them in the end,
constitutes the plot. A struggle between two individuals, the relation between them, a struggle with self, a
dilemma, or any form of conflict of one character with himself or another character in the play, goes into

forming the story’s plot. The story unfolds through a series of incidents that share a cause-and-effect
relationship. Generally, a story begins with exposing the past or background of the main and other
characters, and the point of conflict, then proceeds to giving the central theme or climax. Then come the
consequences of the climax and the play ends with a conclusion.
(iii) Characters
The characters that form a part of the story are interwoven with the plot of the drama. Each character in a
play has a personality of its own and a set of principles and beliefs. Actors in the play have the responsibility
of bringing the characters to life. The main character in the play who the audience identifies with, is the
protagonist. He/she represents the theme of the play. The character that the protagonist conflicts with, is the
antagonist or villain. While some characters play an active role throughout the story, some are only meant to
take the story forward and some others appear only in certain parts of the story and may or may not have a
significant role in it. Sometimes, these characters are of help in making the audiences focus on the play’s
theme or main characters. The way in which the characters are portrayed and developed is known as
characterization.
(iv) Dialogue
The story of a play is taken forward by means of dialogues. The story is narrated to the audiences through
the interaction between the play’s characters, which is in the form of dialogues. The contents of the dialogs
and the quality of their delivery have a major role to play in the impact that the play has on the audiences. It
is through the dialogs between characters that the story can be understood. They are important in revealing
the personalities of the characters. The words used, the accent, tone, pattern of speech, and even the pauses
in speech, say a lot about the character and help reveal not just his personality, but also his social status, past,
and family background as given by the play. Monologues and soliloquies that are speeches given to oneself
or to other characters help put forward points that would have been difficult to express through dialogs.
“What’s in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet” from Romeo and
Juliet in which Juliet tells Romeo of the insignificance of names or “To be, or not to be”, a soliloquy
from Hamlet are some of the greatest lines in literature.
(v) Setting
The time and place where a story is set is one of its important parts. The era or time in which the incidents in
the play take place, influence the characters in their appearance and personalities. The time setting may

affect the central theme of the play, the issues raised (if any), the conflict, and the interactions between the
characters. The historical and social context of the play is also defined by the time and place where it is set.
The time period and the location in which the story is set, affect the play’s staging. Costumes and makeup,
the backgrounds and the furniture used, the visuals (colors and kind of lighting), and the sound are among
the important elements of a play that dictate how the story is translated into a stage performance. The
Merchant of Venice has been set in the 16th century Venice. Romeo and Juliet has been set in the era
between 1300 and 1600, perhaps the Renaissance period which is the 14th and 15th centuries.
(vi) Performance
It is another important element of drama, as the impact that a story has on the audiences is largely affected
by the performances of the actors. When a written play is transformed into a stage performance, the actors
cast for different roles, the way they portray the characters assigned to them, and the way their performances
are directed are some important factors that determine the play’s impact. Whether an actor’s appearance
(includes what he wears and how he carries himself on stage) suits the role he is playing, and how well he
portrays the character’s personality are determinants of how well the play would be taken by the audiences.
Different actors may play the same roles in different renditions of a play. A particular actor/actress in a
certain role may be more or less accepted and appreciated than another actor in the same role. As different
actors are cast for different roles, their roles are more or less appreciated depending on their performances.
The stage performances of a play’s characters, especially those in lead roles, directly affect the success and
popularity of a play.
Although considered as a part of the staging, factors such as music and visuals can be discussed separately as
the elements of drama.
(vii) Music
This element includes the use of sounds and rhythm in dialogs as well as music compositions that are used in
the plays. The background score, the songs, and the sound effects used should complement the situation and
the characters in it. The right kind of sound effects or music, if placed at the right points in the story, act as a
great supplement to the high and low points in the play. The music and the lyrics should go well with the
play’s theme. If the scenes are accompanied by pieces of music, they become more effective on the
audiences.

(viii) Visual Element
While the dialogue and music are the audible aspects of drama, the visual element deals with the scenes,
costumes, and special effects used in it. The visual element of drama, also known as the spectacle, renders a
visual appeal to the stage setup. The costumes and makeup must suit the characters. Besides, it is important
for the scenes to be dramatic enough to hold the audiences to their seats. The special effects used in a play
should accentuate the portion or character of the story that is being highlighted.
Apart from these elements, the structure of the story, a clever use of symbolism and contrast, and the overall
stagecraft are some of the other important elements of drama.
The structure of the story comprises the way in which it is dramatized. How well the actors play their roles
and the story’s framework constitute the structure of drama. Direction is an essential constituent of a play. A
well-directed story is more effective. Stagecraft defines how the play is presented to the audiences. The use
and organization of stage properties and the overall setting of a play are a part of stagecraft, which is a key
element of drama.
Symbols are often used to give hints of the future events in the story. They complement the other elements
of a scene and make it more effective. The use of contrasts adds to the dramatic element of a play. It could
be in the form of contrasting colors, contrasting backdrops, an interval of silence followed by that of activity
and noise, or a change in the pace of the story.
The dramatization of a story cannot be called successful unless the audiences receive it well. It may improve
through constructive criticism or due to improvisations introduced by the actors. And a generous
appreciation from the audiences encourages everyone involved in the making of a play, to continue doing
good work.
 Nature of Drama
The nature of drama is to serve a wide variety of functions at different times and in different places. The
Roman writer, Horace, in one of the well-known statements about the purpose of literature in general and
drama in particular, said it was designed ‘to delight and instruct’.

Usually, the purpose of drama has been considered to be primarily the first of these, at times, the second, but
generally at least, some degree of both has been present. Audiences attend plays from a mixture of
motivations, including curiosity, pleasure-seeking, and a desire for knowledge or aesthetic experience. But
all these experiences are intensified by the public nature of drama.
Language in drama reflects the seriousness or laughability of a dramatised story. The theme or subject
matter of a particular play is determined by the language of such a play. The style of the language employed
when such a play is a tragedy is different from when it is a comedy; indeed, plays are meant for different
audiences. The choice of language is, therefore, determined by the audience for which a play is meant and
the nature of the play itself- serious or otherwise. The language of drama is patterned on real-life
conversations among people, and yet, when we watch a play, we have to consider the differences between
real talk and drama talk. The language of drama is ultimately always constructed or ‘made up’ and it often
serves several purposes.
Among the devices used in drama for serious dramatic effects are dialogue, dramatic irony, pun, allegory,
soliloquy etc.
(i) Dialogue
A play exists in dialogues. Therefore, one prominent feature of the language of drama is
dialogue/conversation. When they are engaged in dialogues/conversations, characters use language that reveals
their status, background, motivations, and so on.
(ii) Dramatic Irony
Dramatic irony entails a situation where the reader (or audience) knows something about what’s happening
in the plot, about which the character(s) has/have no knowledge. Dramatic irony can be used in
comedies and tragedies, and it works to engage the reader, as he is drawn into the event. The audience may
sympathise with the character, who does not know the true situation. Or, the reader may see the character as
blind or ignorant. The clues may be rather obvious, but the character may be unwilling to recognise the truth.
Odewale, in The gods are not to blame is a good example of a dramatic irony, as the audience knows that he
is the one guilty of the culprit he seeks to punish. Shakespeare’s Othello offers another example of dramatic

irony, as he blames Desdemona for cuckolding him (even as the audience knows that he is being deceived by
Iago).
(iii) Allegory
Allegory is an expression of a truth by means of a particular symbolic meaning. The symbolic meaning can
be either a character taking on the role of a personal quality or trait, or it can be clues that lead to a deeper
meaning. In allegory, abstract qualities are seen and personified into characters. An actual character becomes
the quality discussed.
(iv) Pun
The primary function of dramatic pun is to capture the conflicts and complex meanings of the characters’
experiences through the individual words. Puns used in comical situations are common in Shakespearean
plays. The prominence of the puns demonstrates that words, like the human actions they describe, are subject
to multiple interpretations. Shakespeare’s plays exhibit many different kinds of puns, and characters employ
them for multiple functions. Romeo and Juliet is one of the plays with puns.
Hamlet, on the other hand has puns linked to vengeance and desperate state.
(v) Soliloquy
Soliloquy is a dramatic speech uttered by a character speaking aloud alone on the stage. The character thus
reveals his/her inner thoughts and feelings to the audience. We see for example, instances of soliloquy in
Shakespeare’s Macbeth and Hamlet.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
(i) What is drama?
(ii) Explain carefully the nature of drama.
(iii) What are the essential elements of the language of drama?
(iv)Carry out a stylistic analysis of the language of any drama text of your choice.

Brecht, B. (1961). Galileo, The Good Woman of Setzuan, The Caucassian Chalk Circle in Seven
Plays. New York: Grove Press.
Culpeper, J., MickShort & P. Verdonk, Eds. (1998). Exploring the Language of Drama: From Text to
Context. New York: Routledge.
Dalsylva, A.O. (2003). Studies in Drama. Ibadan: Ibadan Cultural Study Group.
Vincent, T. (1979). “Drama as Cultural Education.” In: Ubahakwe, E. (Ed.) The Teaching of English
Studies. Ibadan: University Press.
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UNIT 2: REGISTERS
2.0. INTRODUCTION
Language, by its nature, is not a monolithic entity; it varies along many dimensions. Such factors as topic,
setting, participants, medium, etc are condition variations in language. In this unit, you will be introduced to
the important dimension of language studies which has some implications for stylistics – that is, register.
2.1. The Meaning of Register
As a signaling system, language varies according to use and users. Language variety according to use
has been given the technical term register while that according to users is referred to as dialect.
According
to Longe (1995: 41), the idea of register in language varieties differentiation can be traced back to Wegnener
with his argument for language differentiation into “field of context distinguished by general subject
matter, participants’ interest, etc.” As Longe (1995) submits further, it is from Wegener’s and
Malinowski’s ideas that Firth draws his concepts of context of situation, emphasizing appropriateness of
language in situations.

Like most concepts in linguistics, register has been subjected to different interpretations. According to
Leckie – Terry and Birch (1995: 6) the term was applied by Halliday to mean “a variety according to use in
the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at different times.” Halliday
distinguishes that (i.e. register) from dialect which he describes as “a variety according to user, in the sense
that each speaker uses one variety and uses it all the time” (Leckie-Terry and Birch 1995: 6). In their own
case, Gregory and Carroll (1978: 64) take register to be “a useful abstraction linking variations of language
to variations of social context.” In addition, they see it as “a contextual category correlating groupings of
linguistic features with recurrent situational features” (p. 4).
2.2. Function of register
Registers therefore determine what we can mean as occasioned by what we are doing, with or to whom
and through which channel. In other words, registers are different ways of saying different things and tend
to differ in semantics and hence in lexicogrammar and, sometimes in phonology as a realisation of this. The
human society in which we live is complex and calls for diverse or different occupations or professions and
each of these professions deploys language in its own peculiar way. The manner in which each profession
uses language is its register and that is why register is regarded as an occupational variety of languages.
The notion of register simply refers to the fact that the language we use varies according to the situation of
use; that is, what we are doing, the participants and the medium.
2.3. Language of register/stylistics features
The illustration below shows the registers of some fields of human activities:
Field Words/Expressions
Banking Statement of account, foreign exchange, to over-draw an
account, savings department , teller, standing order, loan, bank draft, bad debt, re-
conciliatory account, bulk room,
cheque e.t.c.
Wedding Bride, bridegroom, bestman, chief bridesmaid, pages, wedding ring, ring bearing,
cutting the wedding cake, marriage register, officiating minister, reception, for
better,
for worse, till death do us part etc.
Burial Corpse, remains, undertakers, wake keeping, funeral oration,
last rites, obituary, cemetery, earth to earth, dust to dust etc.

Football Central referee, assistant referee, foul charge, eighteen yar
box, penalty kick, free kick, left winger, midfielder, attacking midfielder, defending
midfielder, goalless draw, score draw, half time etc.
Law Counsel, plaintiff, alibi, injunction, jurisdiction, civil case,
criminal case, for want of evidence, court summons, onus of proof, discharge and
acquitted, contempt of court, bilabial offence, surety, perjury, locus stand etc.
Language is a maker of identify and when we speak or write, we show the type of persons we are, what we
do or are doing and the type of social relationship we have with our interlocutors. This therefore is the
kernel of the concept of register in language description.
Let us consider, for example, some registers and their peculiar linguistic features:
(i) The Register of Bureaucracy
 Passive sentences to avoid personal responsibility
e.g. “I am directed...”
 Peculiar words and expressions such as transfer of service, termination of appointment, emolument,
work force, minutes, memos, agenda, directives, etc.
(ii) Legal Register
 Use of archaic words and expressions e.g. witnessesth, aforesaid, wheretofore, holden, etc.
 Absence of punctuations.
 Peculiar words and expressions such as plaintiff, respondent, accused, prosecutor, perjury, want of
evidence, prove beyond reasonable doubt, etc.
(iii) The Register of Science
 The language of orthodox medicine, which subsumes that of nursing, shares many features with the
register of science and these include:
- Use of exact and precise words/ expression.
- Specialised/technical terms.
- Passive constructions to imbue the register with impersonal or scientific objectivity.
Read the following extract which illustrates the register of medicine:
“Penicillin is effective against a number of common organisms including streptococci, staphylococci,
pneumococci and gonococci. It is free from toxic side effects and can be given in very large doses, but

some people develop a sensitivity which is manifested by allergic reactions, such as urticaria and even
anaphylactic shock. For this reason, patients should be asked if they have had previous penicillin treatment,
and if thought necessary they should be given a small test dose” (Adapted from Thomas, D and Thomas, J.
(1969). English for Nurses London: Edward Arnold. P. 82).
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Read the extract above again and carry out its stylistic analysis, paying attention to its register.
2.4. Major Determinants of Register
The three major determinants of register are field, tenor and mode.
 Field
The field of discourse refers to what is happening i.e. the nature of the social interaction taking place: what is
it that the participants are engaged in, in which language figures as an essential component? The nature of
the activities in which people are engaged will reflect in the language they use. The language of medicine,
for example, will differ from that of farming.
 Tenor
The tenor of discourse is also known as the style of discourse. This accounts for the formality or informality
of the linguistic medium. It further identifies who is taking part in the discourse, the status and the roles of
the participants etc in the discourse. The roles of the participants are what determine the hierarchic and the
non- hierarchic roles or the dominated and the non- dominated.
Language will reflect such interactions as between husband/wife, master/servant, doctor/patient, etc.
 Mode
The Mode is the symbolic organization of the text, e.g. the rhetorical modes (persuasive, expository,
didactic, etc). It emphasises the channel of communication, such as spoken/written,
monologic dialogic, visual contact, computer- mediated communication/telephone conversation and other
modes by which communication or thoughts can be expressed etc. In its grammar and organisation, for
example, speech is different from writing. Speech lacks clear sentence boundaries and is replete with what
we call monitoring features and gap fillers such as “you see,” “you know,” “I mean,” etc.

2.5. CONCLUSION
To understand various discourse types, the elements of registers are very important because they express the
meanings required in a particular context. By understanding the language properties of a situation (i.e., the
values for field, tenor, and mode), language users can predict the meanings that are likely to be exchanged
and the language to be used.
The practice of stylistics will expose you to different varieties of English, and of course, any other language
of your choice. The register of each variety will clearly show in the vocabulary and to some extent in
phonology and lexico-grammar. Certainly, language is variable and that variation in language that is
conditioned by the factor of use is what we term register.
1. Read the following text and undertake an analysis of its register
“My lord, the evidence before the course shows that the plaintiffs have confessed having conducted
themselves in a manner likely to cause a breach of peace and so there is no substance in the claim that
they have been wrongly accused. I sincerely opine that there application for an interlocutory
injunction is baseless. It definitely is not ultra-vires that College Authority to have taken disciplinary
measures against the rioting students. I therefore pray the course to strike out the request for an
interlocutory injunction.”
2. Define the concept of register.
3. Identify and explain the major determinants of register.
Ghadessy, M. (ed). (1993). Register Analysis: Theory and Practice. London: Pinter Publishers.
Gregory, M. & Carroll, S. (1978). Language and Situation. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Leckie-Tarry, J. (1995). Language and Context: A Functional Linguistic Theory of Register. London: Pinter.

Longe, V. (1995). Studies in the Varieties of Language. Benin: Headmark Publishers.
Thomas, D. & Thomas, J. (1969). English for Nurses. London: Edward Arnold.
===========================================================================
MODULE 4: SAMPLE TEXTUAL ANALYSES
UNIT 1: A SAMPLE STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF A PROSE PASSAGE
1. INTRODUCTION
From the preceding units, we have been discussing stylistics and the various approaches to its analysis. In
this unit, we shall embark on a stylistic analysis of a prose passage with a view to further familiarizing you
with the practice of stylistics.
A Sample Stylistic Analysis of a Prose Passage
Since this is a practical section you should read the following question and the answer
following it. This will serve as a guide to you in your future endeavour to analyse passages
stylistically.
Question: Carry out a stylistic analysis of the passage below:
Wherever I went in my campaigning, Boniface sat with me in front and the other three at the back of the car.
As our journeys became more and more hazardous, I agreed to our carrying the minimum of weapons
strictly for defence. We had live matchets, a few empty bottles and stones in the boot. Later we were

compelled to add two doubled-barrel led guns. I only agreed to this most reluctantly after many acts of
violence were staged against us, like the unprovoked attack by some hoodlums and thugs calling themselves
Nanga’s Youth Vanguard or Nangavanga, for short. New branches of this Nangavanga were springing up
every day throughout the district. Their declared aim was ‘to annihilate all enemies of progress’ and ‘to
project true Nangaism.’ The fellows we ran into carried placards, one of which read: NANGAISM
FOREVER: SAMALU IS TREITOR. It was the first time I had seen myself on a placard and I felt oddly
elated. It was also amusing, really, how the cowards slunk away from road -blocks they had put up when
Boniface reached out and grabbed two of their leaders, brought their heads together like dumb-bells and left
them to fall to either side of him. You should have seen them fall like cut banana trunks, it was then I
acquired my first trophy- the placard with my name on it. But I lost my windscreen which they smashed with
stones. It was funny but from then on I began to look out for unfriendly placards carrying my name and to
feel somewhat disappointed if I didn’t see them or saw too few.
Achebe, C. (1966:112. 113) A man of the people Ibadan: Heinemann.
ANALYSIS
1. Genre: The passage is a prose depicting a state of anarchy during a political transition.
2. Plot: The plot presents the ordeal the narrator and his four supporters passed through in their
political campaigns.
3. Theme: Thus, we have a simple plot which cadence, lexical choice and thematic concern resonate
(and revolve round) politics and violence. With this background in view, we may deduce why the
language of the prose is harsh and the situation ominous.
4. Point of view: The passage makes use of the first person narrative technique.
5. Phono-graphological level:
 Graphological level:
- The passage contains 269 words and 27 lines.
- The passage further contains one paragraph of fourteen lengthy sentences. This
underscores the hypocrisy of African politicians who speak lengthy words to deceive the
masses. After assuming office, they perform less than expected.
- The prose is replete with eight commas, six hyphens (with five hyphenated words), two
colons, two quotes and fourteen periods. All these are prominently used because both the
paragraph and the sentences are long. The semicolons indicate the points where new ideas
(slogans) are presented.

 Phonological level:
- There is the preponderance of the sound /i/ as in line two of the prose. Sound /n/ also
features prominently in the prose as in words like ‘‘New, Nanga, Nangavanga.
Nangtrism. Funny, ran”.
- All these words and their associates litter the whole passage such that they give it some
rhythm.
 The graphic arrangement of the prose is significant. The words: “Wherever” and “I” start it
and two words “too” and “few” end it such that the first line is indented to the left and the last
line to the right.
6. Stylistically, it confirms the text as an excerpt extracted from a portion of a text. It also affirms that
the political situation presented in question is a dichotomy between two camps and the conflict is
unresolved in the context.
7. At the lexico-semantic level:
 There is an attempt (by the writer) to reveal that the passage has to do with politics and
political activities as shown in the choice of such words (Diction) as:
 Campaigning (line 2)
 Journey (acts of violence) (line 8)
 Vanguard (line 10)
 Project (line 13)
 Placard (lines 14, 16)
 Furthermore, the political problems are carefully presented in words and expressions like:
 Campaigning - journeys became more and more hazardous (line 4)
 Weapons for defence (line 5)
 Five matchets
 Empty bottles
 Stones
 Two doubled- barreled guns
 Nangavanga (a parody of vagabonds)
 Enemies of progress
 Treitor (traitor)
 Bottles

 The use of such words and expressions above presents the whole scenario as being chaotic
and in a state of anomie.
 Initially, the writer underplays his role in the violence by using the word “campaigning” for
his own acts and ‘‘violence” for those of his opponents. Conversely, the opponents in turn
use the phrase “enemies of progress” to refer to the narrator. To further justify his actions
(roles), the writer refers to his campaign as a hazardous journey which requires “weapons for
defence” (but not weapons for attack). Thus he uses the word “weapons” to present the
instruments which include ‘‘matchets, empty bottles, stones and double-barrelled guns.”
8. At the syntactic level, the passage contains few simple sentences and a great deal of compound
complex sentences such as:
“Wherever I went in my campaigning, Boniface sat with me in front and the other three at the
back.” (Compound-complex).
“Later we were compelled to add two double-barrelled guns.” (Simple)
“It was funny but from then on I began to look out for unfriendly placards Carrying my name
and to feel somewhat disappointed if 1 didn’t see them or saw too few.”(Compound-
complex).
9. At the level of discourse, certain cohesive ties are used to hold the text together lexically. These
include: reference: as in
It was then I acquired my first trophy- the placard with my name on it (sentence 12).
 This is a case of cataphoric reference; i.e. forward reference ‘‘trophy” cataphorically refers to “the
placard.”
 There are also instances of anaphoric reference as in:
Boniface…grabbed two of their leaders... You should have seen them fall like cut banana truck
(sentences 10 and 11)
“them” is an anaphoric (backward) reference to the “two of their leaders.”
 Ellipsis

This is a case of recoverable omissions, and substitution by zero. Examples:
Boniface reached out and [Boniface] grabbed two of their leaders (line 19, sentence 10).
Boniface sat with me in front and the other three [sat] at the back of the car (sentence 2).
 Conjunction
This is preponderant in the whole text. Examples include:
‘and’ – lines 2, 3, 9, 13 and 17.
‘but’ – line 23.
‘if’ – line 26.
‘when’ – line 19.
The conjunctions are used to hold the text together: “and,” “but are used to balance ideas while “if,”
“when” indicate dependency relationship. In other words, the conjunction identified in the text performs
cohesive functions.
CONCLUSION
It should be noted that the analysis above is just a sample. Therefore, it should not be crammed. Rather, you
are expected to try your hands on several prose passages, following the pattern that is presented to
you here. Of course, you should also demonstrate some level of creativity in your stylistic analysis.
REFLECTION QUESTIONS FOR ASSIGNMENT
Carry out a stylistic analysis of the passage below:
[Peter Walsh, a middle-aged man who has just returned to London after years in India, watches a summer
evening begin in the London streets. The time is just after the First World War.]
Since it was a very hot night and the paper boys went by with placards proclaiming in huge red letters that
there was a heat-wave, wicker chairs were placed on the hotel steps and there, sipping, smoking, detached
gentlemen sat. peter Walsh sat there. One might fancy that day, the London day, was just beginning. Like a

woman who had slipped off her print dress and white apron to array herself in blue and pearls, the day
changed, put off stuff, took guaze, changed to evening, and with the same sigh of exhilaration that a woman
breathes, tumbling petticoats on the floor, it too shed dust, heat, colour; the traffic thinned; motor cars,
tinkling, darting, succeeded the lumber of vans; and here and there among the thick foliage of the squares an
intense light hung. I resign, the evening seemed to say, as it paled and faded above the battlements and
prominences, moulded, pointed, of hotel, flat, and block of shops, I fade, she was beginning, I disappear, but
London would have none of it, and rushed her bayonets into the sky, pinioned her, constrained her
partnership in her revelry.
… The prolonged evening was. Inspiring… For as the young people went by with their dispatch-boxes,
awfully glad to be free, proud too, dumbly, of stepping this famous pavement, joy of a kind, cheap, tinselly,
if you like, but all the same rapture, flushed their faces. They dressed well too; pink stockings; pretty shoes.
They would now have two hours at the pictures. It sharpened them, it refined them, the yellow-blue evening
light; and on the leaves in the square shone lurid, livid – they looked as if dipped in sea water- the foliage of
a submerged city.
Virginia Wolf (1882 – 1941)
From ‘Mrs Dalloway’ (adapted)
REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
Achebe, C. (1966). A Man of the People. Ibadan: Heinemann.
UNIT 2: A SAMPLE STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF A POEM
INTRODUCTION
The language of poetry, you will remember, is usually characterized by some stylistic features which can
be analysed at graphological, phonological, syntactic and lexico-semantic. It is all these features that
give a literary work, like a poem, what Fowler (1975: 11) calls “identity.”

Question: Read the poem below carefully:

You may write me down in history
With your bitter, twisted lies,
You may trod me in the very dirt
But still, like dust, I’ll rise.
Does my sassiness upset you?
Why are you beset with gloom?
‘Cause I walk like I’ve got oil wells
Pumping in my living room.
Just like moons and like suns,
With the certainty of tides,
Just like hopes springing high, Still I’ll rise.
Did you want to see my broken bowed head
and lowered eyes?
Shoulders falling down like teardrops,
Weakened by my soulful cries.
Does my haughtiness offend you, don’t you
take is awful hard.
‘Cause I laugh like I’ve got gold mines
Digging’ in my own backyard.
You may shoot me with your words,
You may cut me with your eyes,
You may kill me with your hatefulness,
But still, like air, I’ll rise.
Does my sexiness upset you?
Does it come as a surprise?
That I dance like l’ve got diamonds
At the meeting of my things?
Out of the huts of history’s shame I rise
Up from a past that’s rooted in pain I rise
I’m a black ocean, leaping and wide,
Welling and swelling I bear in the tide.
Leaving behind nights of terror and far.
I rise Into a daybreak that’s wondrously
clear I rise
Bringing the gifts that my ancestors gave,
I am the dram ands the hope of the slave I
rise
I rise I rise
(Maya Angelou (1978) “Still I Rise”)

ANALYSIS
1. Graphological Features
 The poem is divided into eight stanzas.
 Each of the first to seventh stanzas contains four lines.
 The eighth stanza, however, comprises 6 lines.
 There is predominant use of the question mark in the poem as this could be seen m lines 5, 6, 13, 14
17, 25 and 28. This is, perhaps, not unconnected with the background of the poem, which has to do
with the Black American slaves’ constant but purposive quest for identity and freedom from the white
masters’ oppression and tyranny Both comma and full stop are also used, almost in equal proportions,
in the poem.
 There is the use of apostrophe in the poem; e.g:
 I’ll (lines 4, 12 and 24)
 ‘Cause (lines 7 and 19)
 Don’t (line 18)
 I’ve (lines 7, 19 and 27)
 That’s (line 31)
 I’m (line, 33)
Thus, the form of the poem is quite reflective of a group of people rising against the tide of oppression and
tyranny.
2. Phonological Features
There are some phonological features in the poem which facilitate a degree of musicality in it:
 Rhyme, as a prosodic element in a poem, is utilized in a good measure in the poem. This is
noticeable in lines 2 and 4, 6 and 8, 10 and 12, 14 and 16, 18 and 20, 22 and 24, 26 and 28, 33 and
34, 35 and 37, and 39 and 40.
 The musicality which the use of rhyme evokes in the poem appears to have made it attract attention
to the message which the poetic persona is trying to get across to her audience.
 The use of repetition in “I rise”, which, though, begins the poem as “I’ll rise” is another noticeable
phonological feature which assists in placing emphasis on the resolution of the defiant poetic

persona not to allow anything deter her from achieving freedom.
3. Syntactic Features
 The sentence types that are commonly used in the poem are the imperative and the interrogative. The
use of these sentence types harmonizes with the tone and the mood of the poetic persona. While the
pseudo imperative sentences such as the following:
You may write me down in history (line 1)
You may shoot me with your words, (line 21)
You may cut me with your eyes (line 22)
You may kill me with your hatefulness (line 23)
 Show the dare devil poetic persona’s attitude of calling her listener’s bluff, the interrogative
sentences, such as the following:
Does my sassiness upset you? (line 5)
Why are you beset with gloom? (line 6)
Did you want to see me broken? (line 13)
Does my haughtiness offend you? (line 25)
Does my sexiness upset you? (line 25)
 There is cohesion in the structural patterns of the poem through the use of the conjunctions, ‘but’
and ‘like’ as we have in the following lines:
But still, like dust, I’ll rise (line 4)
Just like hopes springing high, (line 11)
But still, like air, I’ll rise, (line 24).
 Bondage, on the other hand, manifests through the use of subordinators like ‘cause’ (because] and
‘that’ as shown in the following lines:
Why are you beset with gloom?
“Cause I walk like I’ve got oil wells (lines 7-8)
Don’t you take it awful hard
‘Cause I laugh like I’ve got gold mines (lines 18-19)
Does it come as a surprise
That I dance like I’ve got diamonds (lines 26-27).

 The use of these devices, especially, bondage (which shows dependency) probably depicts the
servitude in which the Black American slaves were to their white masters while slavery lasted in
America. Most of the simple sentences utilized in the poem are inverted as follows for stylistic effect:
...like dust, I’ll rise (line 4) Still I’ll rise (line 12) ...
…like air I’ll rise (lines 24)
Out of the huts of history’s shame I rise (lines 31 - 32)
Into a daybreak that’s wondrously clear I rise (lines 37-38)
4. Lexico-Semantic Features
 Although, a cursory look at the poem would suggest that the reader might not have difficulty in
understanding the message in it, it is noteworthy that the poem employs some words and expressions
that demand a careful analysis for their meanings to be properly decoded. This is because such
words are not usual collocations – a situation which creates some stylistic effects. Such unusual
collocations include the ‘words’ in ‘You may shoot me with your words, ‘cut’ and ‘eyes’ in ‘You
may cut me with your eyes’, ‘kill’ and ‘hatefulness’ in ‘You may kill me with your hatefulness’ and
‘black’ and ‘ocean’ in ‘I’ am black ocean.
 They bring about strikingly metaphoric meanings that draw the reader closer to the import of the
poet’s message. It is not unlikely that the poet does this to show the inequality between the white
masters and the black American slaves.
 Apart from metaphor, simile is also employed by the poet to some stylistic advantages. The simile in
each of ‘…like dust’, ‘… like air…’ and’…like I’ve got diamonds’ creates an imagery which helps
in enhancing the reader’s understanding of the message in the poem.
CONCLUSION
On the whole Maya Angelou’s poem, “Still I Rise” deploys rich poetic devices to a number of purposes
such as explaining, illustrating, revealing and clarifying. Note, however, that the analysis provided here is
not exhaustive, but it can guide you in dong a meaningful analysis of any poem you may encounter.
Therefore, in reading a poem, you should pay attention to its content, form and language. Your analysis
should also be well organised and there must be evidence for any observation you make. You should realise

that effective reading of a poem is essential to its productive analysis. It is only when you read and
understand a poem thoroughly that you can attempt its meaningful analysis.
Carry out a stylistic analysis of the poem below at the graphological, phonological, syntactic and
lexico-semantic levels:
The Negro speaks of Rivers I’ve known rivers:
I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human veins.
My soul has grown deep like the rivers,
I bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young.
I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled me to sleep,
I looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it.
I heard the singing of the Mississippi when Abe Lincoln Went down to New Orleans,
and I’ve seen its muddy Bosom turn all golden in the sunset.
I’ve known rivers:
Ancient, dusky rivers.
My soul has grown deep like the rivers.
(Langston Hughes)
Babajide, A. O. (1996). “Sense in Sound; Aspects of Phonostylistics in Niyi Osundare’s select Essays” in
Lekan Oyeleye’s Introduction to English Phonetics. Ibadan: Ben-el Books Pp 45-53.
Blake, N.F. (1990). An Introduction to the Language of literature. London: Macmillan.
Fowler, R. (ed.) (1975). Style find Structure. London: Routledge & Kegan Pant.

Nowottny, W. (1965). The Language Poets Use. London: Anthlone.
UNIT 3: A SAMPLE STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF A DRAMA PASSAGE
The task before you is to read the following drama passage and its analysis, paying particular attention to its
stylistic features highlighted.
Question: Carry out a stylistic analysis of the following drama passage:
Pilkings: Joseph, are you a Christian or not?
Joseph: Yessir
Pilkings: Now Joseph, answer me on the honour of a Christian - What is supposed to be going on
in town tonight?
Joseph: Tonight sir? You mean that chief who is going to killing himself
Pilkings: You do mean he is going to kill somebody don’t you?
Joseph: No master. He will not kill anybody and no one will kill him. He will simply die
Jane: But why Joseph?
Joseph: It is native law and custom. The king die last month. Tonight is his burial. But before they can bury
him, the Elesin must die so as to accompany him to heaven.
[Soyinka, W. (1975), Death and the King’s Horseman. Ibadan: Spectrum. pp 26-27].
ANALYSIS
1. The text presents three people probably at home, having a casual but not entirely friendly
conversation. Two men are presented against a lady in terms of characterization. This
involves gender imbalance. The plus higher role is evident through the use of the first name
by Pilkings and Jane for Joseph. The minus higher role in language manifests in Joseph’s

answers to Pilkings and Jane. Joseph mostly adds the honorific ‘sir’ to his answers while
replying the Pilkingses. i.e. Pilkings and Jane who are husband and wife.
2. The casualness of the conversation is also evident through the use of incomplete and ellipted
sentences. At the same time, the language can be said to be official through the use of
question/ answer technique as well as words like “sir, honour, master”, etc.
3. Since the passage is a dramatic one, it is expedient to begin our analysis at the level of
discourse:
 It should be noted that the passage presents three speakers; one lady and two men. On
the whole, we have a transaction that simultaneously contains an exchange, eight
moves and fourteen acts. The first statement is a grammatical act of sentence while the
second statement is an act (word) as in:
 Joseph, are you a Christian or not? (Act –sentence) – Turn 1 Yessir (Act-word) –
Turn 2
 The text graphologically, contains eight turns. The conversation starts with adjacency
pairs of questioning/ answering technique and it also ends the same way. There is,
therefore, a preponderance of the adjacency pairs in the text. In terms of function, the
dominant discourse act is the elicitation act. Out of the eight turns, five are designed to
ask questions. This is evident through the use of question marks in turns 1,3, 4, 5 and
6. Meanwhile, the remaining three turns provide answers to the questions; hence, they
are functioning as informative acts.
 The major cohesive ties inherent in the play- text – are ellipsis, conjunction, lexical
cohesion and reference. These are expatiated below:
Ellipsis
- Turn 2: Joseph: Yessir [{yes} I am]
- Turn 8. “It is native law and [it is] custom.”

- Turn 2 is a response to the question ‘are you a Christian or not P.’ As such, the answer is affirming
that he is. Turn eight shows the elision of “it is”. The above are cases of clausal ellipsis [“I am” and
“it is”.
- Each of them contains pronominal subject and a be-verb.
- Turn 6: “No [I don’t] master”. This is another case of clausal ellipsis.
Conjunction
Another prominent cohesive tie is conjunction. The passage is largely replete with coordinating conjunctions
and a subordinating conjunction as in:
- Turn 4 – who… [Subordinating conjunction]
- Turn 6 – and… [Coordinating conjunction]
- Turn 7 – but…[Coordinating conjunction]
- Turn 8 – and… [Coordinating conjunction]
Reference
 Reference is another tie deployed by the playwright. This manifests in: “Joseph, are you a
Christian or not”- Turn 1
“You” is an anaphoric reference to Joseph.
 “The king die last month. Tonight is his burial”, - Turn 8; “his” is another anaphoric reference to ‘the
king’.
 At the lexico-semantic level, the use of words and expressions like “Christian”, “native law” and
“custom” is significant. The words present the conflict in the play i.e. modern Christianity versus
native traditional belief. On the other hand, we have two white personalities trying to cajole a black
servant into telling them the fellow black man’s secret.

Finally, the words are thematically pointing to colonization and its negative effect on the traditional
beliefs. The theme of destruction or death can be deduced from the preponderance of the following
words in the discourse:
Kill - Turns 4, 5. 6 (2 times)
Die - Turns 6 and 8 (2 times)
Bury -Turn 8
Burial -Turn 8
 At the syntactic level, the conversation is presented mostly in simple and compound sentences. For
instance:
Are you a Christian or not? – Turn 1 - Simple sentence
Yessir [I am] – Turn 2 - Simple sentence
Answer me on the honour of a Christian – Turn 3 - Simple sentence.
He will not kill anybody and no one will kill him – Turn 8 - Compound sentence.
CONCLUSION
The above analysis serves as a model and should not be memorised. The approach adopted can be improved
upon as you come across different dramatic texts. What is important is that whatever observation you make
must have its basis in the text. You should avoid a deliberate misinterpretation of any text you analyse.
In summary, we may conclude that the playwright has presented his idea with simplicity of language and
discursive elements that reduce heuristic tasks on the part of the reader to comprehend. Thus, the simplicity
of language has a thematic motivation, as well as relevance, especially for characterisation. Note that Joseph
is a ‘lesser’ character when compared with the Pilkins (husband and wife).
Carry out a stylistic analysis of the drama passage below:

STEWARD: That’s Sir Thomas More.
MORE: The wine please, Matthew?
STEWARD: It’s there, Sir Thomas.
MORE: (Looking into the jug) Is it good?
STEWARD: Bless you, sir! I don’t know.
(From Robert Bolt’s A Man For All Seasons)
In carrying out the analysis, pay attention to the message/subject-matter and phono-graphological,
syntactic and lexico-semantic devices employed in the text.
Soyinka, W. (1975). Death and the King’s Horseman. Ibadan: Spectrum.
Wallis, M. & Shepherd, S. (1998). Studying Plays. London: Hodder Arnold.
===============================END OF MODULE===============================

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