The tribological properties of textured surfaces of brass and aluminum were compared with untextured surfaces of the same specimens. This was done to research the effect of micro-dimples and their geometry parameters in reducing the wear of samples tested under lubricated contact with a ball-on-flat reciprocating tribometer.
Wear Rate Analysis of Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing In Different ConditionsIJMER
Friction and wear always occur at machine parts which run together. This affects the
efficiency of machines negatively. Hydrodynamic journal bearings are widely used in industry because
of their simplicity, efficiency and low cost. Wear due to relative motion between component surfaces is
one of the primary modes of failure for many engineered systems. Unfortunately, it is difficult to
accurately predict component life due to wear as reported wear rates generally exhibit large scatter.
An attempt has been made to study the influence of wear parameters like load, speed, type of lubricant
used, temperature, and viscosity of lubricant. The main objective of the study is to evaluate the wear
rate of different journalbearing materials (brass and white metal) under similar conditions. The
materials are tested in dry and wet lubrication under similar operating conditions. For this purpose we
use Pin-on-disc apparatus. It was found that the wear rate of both materials is more in dry conditions
compared to lubricated conditions (when tested under similar working conditions). We also found that
wear rate of white metal is more as compared to brass and higher frictional force is observed in case
of brass material
Wear In Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings: A ReviewIJMER
The importance of friction and wear control cannot be overemphasized for economic reasons
and long-term reliability. This paper presents the reviews of different works in the area of wear and
friction in hydrodynamic journal bearings and tries to find out latest developments and trends available in
industries and other fields in order to minimize the total equipment cost, minimize damages and maximize
the safety of machines, structures and materials. This paper helps us to find out the parameters on which a
hydrodynamic journal bearing is selected for different conditions i.e. dry as well as lubricated conditions.
Effect of gradation of aggregates on marshall properties of sdbc mix designeSAT Journals
Abstract
Semi Dense Bituminous concrete (SDBC) is the upper bituminous layer of the road subjected to moderate traffic loads. The
grading of aggregates used to prepare the SDBC mix should fall within the limits specified in MoRTH. For each aggregate
fraction there is a specified gradation range with lower and higher limits of aggregates passing through a particular sieve size.
The gradation range specified in MoRTH is quite wide. Therefore mix design by adopting a particular gradation of the aggregate
falling within the MoRTH range also affects the Marshall properties. The present study is taken to evaluate the Marshall property
of SDBC mix prepared using the aggregate having different grading within the grading limits specified by the MoRTH. In order to
study this aspect five mixes having different gradation were prepared. The gradation used correspond to Lower Grade (L.G.),
Lower Middle Grade (L.M.G.), Middle Grade (M.G.), Higher Middle Grade (H.M.G.), Higher Grade (H.G.) of the gradation
range specified by MoRTH . The test result revealed that there is significant variation in Marshall Properties of the mixes having
different gradation of the aggregates. The Stability values obtained is maximum for the Lower Middle Grade (L.M.G.) range of
MoRTH specification. The Flow values obtained is maximum for the Middle Grade (M.G.).The Optimum Bitumen Content
(O.B.C.) is also minimum in Lower Middle Grade (L.M.G.).
Keywords: Aggregate Gradation, Semi Dense Bitumen Concrete, Marshall Properties, Morth.
Effect of angle of repose of aggregate on strength of bituminous mixIJARIIT
The major constituent of the bituminous mix are
aggregates. The characteristics of the bituminous mix are
mainly affected by properties of aggregates. The angle of
repose of aggregates of different sizes and sources have
been designed in the present study. Further, an attempt has
been made to study the effect of angle of repose to the
strength of bituminous mix. Indirect tensile strength has
been used as the measure of the strength of bituminous mix,
subsequently, the statistical relationship has been proposed
between the overall angles of repose of the aggregates used
in the bituminous mix to its indirect tensile strength.
Wear Rate Analysis of Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing In Different ConditionsIJMER
Friction and wear always occur at machine parts which run together. This affects the
efficiency of machines negatively. Hydrodynamic journal bearings are widely used in industry because
of their simplicity, efficiency and low cost. Wear due to relative motion between component surfaces is
one of the primary modes of failure for many engineered systems. Unfortunately, it is difficult to
accurately predict component life due to wear as reported wear rates generally exhibit large scatter.
An attempt has been made to study the influence of wear parameters like load, speed, type of lubricant
used, temperature, and viscosity of lubricant. The main objective of the study is to evaluate the wear
rate of different journalbearing materials (brass and white metal) under similar conditions. The
materials are tested in dry and wet lubrication under similar operating conditions. For this purpose we
use Pin-on-disc apparatus. It was found that the wear rate of both materials is more in dry conditions
compared to lubricated conditions (when tested under similar working conditions). We also found that
wear rate of white metal is more as compared to brass and higher frictional force is observed in case
of brass material
Wear In Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings: A ReviewIJMER
The importance of friction and wear control cannot be overemphasized for economic reasons
and long-term reliability. This paper presents the reviews of different works in the area of wear and
friction in hydrodynamic journal bearings and tries to find out latest developments and trends available in
industries and other fields in order to minimize the total equipment cost, minimize damages and maximize
the safety of machines, structures and materials. This paper helps us to find out the parameters on which a
hydrodynamic journal bearing is selected for different conditions i.e. dry as well as lubricated conditions.
Effect of gradation of aggregates on marshall properties of sdbc mix designeSAT Journals
Abstract
Semi Dense Bituminous concrete (SDBC) is the upper bituminous layer of the road subjected to moderate traffic loads. The
grading of aggregates used to prepare the SDBC mix should fall within the limits specified in MoRTH. For each aggregate
fraction there is a specified gradation range with lower and higher limits of aggregates passing through a particular sieve size.
The gradation range specified in MoRTH is quite wide. Therefore mix design by adopting a particular gradation of the aggregate
falling within the MoRTH range also affects the Marshall properties. The present study is taken to evaluate the Marshall property
of SDBC mix prepared using the aggregate having different grading within the grading limits specified by the MoRTH. In order to
study this aspect five mixes having different gradation were prepared. The gradation used correspond to Lower Grade (L.G.),
Lower Middle Grade (L.M.G.), Middle Grade (M.G.), Higher Middle Grade (H.M.G.), Higher Grade (H.G.) of the gradation
range specified by MoRTH . The test result revealed that there is significant variation in Marshall Properties of the mixes having
different gradation of the aggregates. The Stability values obtained is maximum for the Lower Middle Grade (L.M.G.) range of
MoRTH specification. The Flow values obtained is maximum for the Middle Grade (M.G.).The Optimum Bitumen Content
(O.B.C.) is also minimum in Lower Middle Grade (L.M.G.).
Keywords: Aggregate Gradation, Semi Dense Bitumen Concrete, Marshall Properties, Morth.
Effect of angle of repose of aggregate on strength of bituminous mixIJARIIT
The major constituent of the bituminous mix are
aggregates. The characteristics of the bituminous mix are
mainly affected by properties of aggregates. The angle of
repose of aggregates of different sizes and sources have
been designed in the present study. Further, an attempt has
been made to study the effect of angle of repose to the
strength of bituminous mix. Indirect tensile strength has
been used as the measure of the strength of bituminous mix,
subsequently, the statistical relationship has been proposed
between the overall angles of repose of the aggregates used
in the bituminous mix to its indirect tensile strength.
EFFECT OF NANO RUBBER ADDITIONS ON WEAR AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF EPOXY GL...paperpublications3
Abstract: The use of polymer fiber reinforced composite materials is growing day by day in all types of engineering structures such as aerospace, automotive, aircraft, chemical, constructions etc. because of their tailorable properties. Through these materials are tailorable, improvement in tribological properties is demanded.Keywords:epoxy glass fiber composites, nano nitrile butadiene rubber particles.
INVESTIGATION ON WEAR RESISTANCE BEHAVIOR OF SIC FILLED HYBRID COMPOSITESIAEME Publication
Polymer composites and hybrid polymer composites are replacing many of the monolithic materials and alloys due to their higher strength to weight ratio, while apparently exhibiting excellent strength to corrosion and wear resistance. Investigation was carried out through experimental study on Silicon Carbide (SiC) filled, different combination of hybrid composites to determine the ‘two body’ abrasive wear behavior. Freshly fabricated Glass-Jute-Epoxy, Glass –Sisal-Epoxy and Glass-Rubber-Epoxy composites with different weight percentage of silicon carbide filler was subjected to two body abrasive wear test under normal room temperature in dry condition on pin-on-disc equipment using 300 grit SiC sand papers. Abrasive paper was stuck on to the rotating disc and test specimen was attached to the flat surface of the pin. The effect of filler content on the (0%,5%,10% ) was studied for 20N load for different sliding distance (25m,50m,75m,100m). The results reveal that the material with increases in filler content is prone to higher wear resistance. The polymer composites with 10% SiC showed least wear loss in all the combination under consideration and lowest wear loss was achieved in glass rubber epoxy and10% SiC combination.
Microstructure and sliding wear behaviour of stircast ti gr and ti –fe metal ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
The type and weight percentage of reinforcement play important role in microstructure and sliding wear resistance of the composite. The low melting point nonferrous metal matrix composites Tin- Graphite and Tin-Iron metal matrix composites are cast by the liquid stir casting technique with up to 5 and 15 weight percentages of carbon and iron respectively as reinforcements. The sliding wear characteristics are important if the specimens are used as bearing materials for light duty applications. The specimens are polished and etched for microstructure examination to verify the homogeneous dispersion of reinforcements in the matrix. The microstructure examination reveals the uniform dispersion of reinforcements in the matrix. The specimens are also subjected to dry sliding wear on Pin –on –disc wear testing equipment and the weight loss method technique was used to find specific wear rate at the respective sliding distance. The cumulative specific wear rates and friction coefficients are plotted against sliding distance. The specific wear rate curves show the necessity of an optimum weight percentage of reinforcements in the composite to reduce the wear rate. The frictional coefficient versus sliding distance curves show the decrease in frictional force at higher sliding distances as the weight percentage of particulates increases. At higher sliding distances, in case of the Tin –Graphite composite the surface of the specimen observed to be smooth which makes the graphite particles to expose as flakes and act as solid lubricant to reduce wear. The scanning electron microscope image of the surface which is normal to the sliding surface also studied to verify the flake formation during wear. Both mild and severe wear regions are observed.
Keywords: particulate, metal matrix composites, stir casting, specific wear rate, friction coefficient.
Influence of Thrust, Torque Responsible for Delamination in drilling of Glass...IDES Editor
Glass fabric sandwich composites are potentially
growing materials which satisfies the low strength to weight
fraction, thermal conductivity, high strength and long
operational lifetime required for key engineering applications
especially in the field of Mechanical and Aerospace structures.
With their wide range of application, their manufacturing
and machinability characteristics are interesting to
investigate. Drilling is one of the prime manufacturing
processes used in assembly lines of components for fastening
and joining two components. In this study, Glass Fabric – Epoxy
/ Rigid polyurethane foam sandwich hybrid composite is drilled
in Arix VMC 100 CNC drilling machine using High Speed
Steel (HSS) drill bit of three different diameters of 6 mm, 8
mm and 10 mm. A L9 orthogonal array is setup to investigate
the result. Two main parameters that contribute to
delamination are thrust and torque. Thus in this
investigation, thrust and torque responsible for the effect of
delamination and hole quality is studied experimentally.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images are taken for
the drilled hole laminate to support the result.
Interface characterizations of diamond coated tools by scratch testing and si...The University of Alabama
n this study, micro-scratch tests were conducted on diamond-coated tungsten-carbide substrates to investigate coating adhesion. During the scratch testing, high intensity acoustic emission (AE) signals can be clearly detected when the coating delamination occurs. It is also found that the tangential force increase gradually with the normal force, but fluctuates significantly when the critical load of coating delamination is reached. A three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) model with a cohesive-zone interface was developed to simulate the scratch process, and by comparing with the delamination critical load from the experiment, the interface characteristic length, the maximum strength and the fracture energy can be obtained. The preliminary results indicate that it is feasible to use the FE simulation combined with scratch tests to evaluate the coating interface behaviors.
Effect of MR Fluid Damping during Milling of CFRP LaminatesIJERA Editor
Machining of fiber reinforced composites is an essential activity taken up in order to integrate them with other
components. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are difficult to machine owing to the nonhomogeneity
of their constituent materials and abrasive nature. As these materials involve more than one phase,
the variation of cutting forces is rather large, which leads to tool chatter and poor surface finish. Therefore the
proper selection of the tool, process parameters and the ability to control the machining forces would result in
better tolerances and improved surface finish. In this study, multiple slots are machined in CFRP laminates
under different machining conditions of spindle speed, feed and depth of cut. A comparative study is made by
conducting the same set of experiments under the influence of the magneto- rheological (MR) damping in order
to assess the tool deflection. It is observed that the MR fluid damping reduces the tool deflection and thus
improves the quality of machined surfaces.
Tichomir G. Vasilev, Wear of bronze bearing bushes after finishing with burni...Tihomir Vasilev
The article published results of experimental studies of wear of bronze bearings bushes, after finishing with burnishing.
Research addresses two types of bronze alloys widely used in practice for making bronze bearings operate under boundary or mixed film friction.
ER Publication,
IJETR, IJMCTR,
Journals,
International Journals,
High Impact Journals,
Monthly Journal,
Good quality Journals,
Research,
Research Papers,
Research Article,
Free Journals, Open access Journals,
erpublication.org,
Engineering Journal,
Science Journals,
The report was done to develop a MATLAB model of a suspension system of a 4 wheel vehicle going over an uneven road. A simulink model was developed to simulate the various forces acting on the suspension of the vehicle.
EFFECT OF NANO RUBBER ADDITIONS ON WEAR AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF EPOXY GL...paperpublications3
Abstract: The use of polymer fiber reinforced composite materials is growing day by day in all types of engineering structures such as aerospace, automotive, aircraft, chemical, constructions etc. because of their tailorable properties. Through these materials are tailorable, improvement in tribological properties is demanded.Keywords:epoxy glass fiber composites, nano nitrile butadiene rubber particles.
INVESTIGATION ON WEAR RESISTANCE BEHAVIOR OF SIC FILLED HYBRID COMPOSITESIAEME Publication
Polymer composites and hybrid polymer composites are replacing many of the monolithic materials and alloys due to their higher strength to weight ratio, while apparently exhibiting excellent strength to corrosion and wear resistance. Investigation was carried out through experimental study on Silicon Carbide (SiC) filled, different combination of hybrid composites to determine the ‘two body’ abrasive wear behavior. Freshly fabricated Glass-Jute-Epoxy, Glass –Sisal-Epoxy and Glass-Rubber-Epoxy composites with different weight percentage of silicon carbide filler was subjected to two body abrasive wear test under normal room temperature in dry condition on pin-on-disc equipment using 300 grit SiC sand papers. Abrasive paper was stuck on to the rotating disc and test specimen was attached to the flat surface of the pin. The effect of filler content on the (0%,5%,10% ) was studied for 20N load for different sliding distance (25m,50m,75m,100m). The results reveal that the material with increases in filler content is prone to higher wear resistance. The polymer composites with 10% SiC showed least wear loss in all the combination under consideration and lowest wear loss was achieved in glass rubber epoxy and10% SiC combination.
Microstructure and sliding wear behaviour of stircast ti gr and ti –fe metal ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
The type and weight percentage of reinforcement play important role in microstructure and sliding wear resistance of the composite. The low melting point nonferrous metal matrix composites Tin- Graphite and Tin-Iron metal matrix composites are cast by the liquid stir casting technique with up to 5 and 15 weight percentages of carbon and iron respectively as reinforcements. The sliding wear characteristics are important if the specimens are used as bearing materials for light duty applications. The specimens are polished and etched for microstructure examination to verify the homogeneous dispersion of reinforcements in the matrix. The microstructure examination reveals the uniform dispersion of reinforcements in the matrix. The specimens are also subjected to dry sliding wear on Pin –on –disc wear testing equipment and the weight loss method technique was used to find specific wear rate at the respective sliding distance. The cumulative specific wear rates and friction coefficients are plotted against sliding distance. The specific wear rate curves show the necessity of an optimum weight percentage of reinforcements in the composite to reduce the wear rate. The frictional coefficient versus sliding distance curves show the decrease in frictional force at higher sliding distances as the weight percentage of particulates increases. At higher sliding distances, in case of the Tin –Graphite composite the surface of the specimen observed to be smooth which makes the graphite particles to expose as flakes and act as solid lubricant to reduce wear. The scanning electron microscope image of the surface which is normal to the sliding surface also studied to verify the flake formation during wear. Both mild and severe wear regions are observed.
Keywords: particulate, metal matrix composites, stir casting, specific wear rate, friction coefficient.
Influence of Thrust, Torque Responsible for Delamination in drilling of Glass...IDES Editor
Glass fabric sandwich composites are potentially
growing materials which satisfies the low strength to weight
fraction, thermal conductivity, high strength and long
operational lifetime required for key engineering applications
especially in the field of Mechanical and Aerospace structures.
With their wide range of application, their manufacturing
and machinability characteristics are interesting to
investigate. Drilling is one of the prime manufacturing
processes used in assembly lines of components for fastening
and joining two components. In this study, Glass Fabric – Epoxy
/ Rigid polyurethane foam sandwich hybrid composite is drilled
in Arix VMC 100 CNC drilling machine using High Speed
Steel (HSS) drill bit of three different diameters of 6 mm, 8
mm and 10 mm. A L9 orthogonal array is setup to investigate
the result. Two main parameters that contribute to
delamination are thrust and torque. Thus in this
investigation, thrust and torque responsible for the effect of
delamination and hole quality is studied experimentally.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images are taken for
the drilled hole laminate to support the result.
Interface characterizations of diamond coated tools by scratch testing and si...The University of Alabama
n this study, micro-scratch tests were conducted on diamond-coated tungsten-carbide substrates to investigate coating adhesion. During the scratch testing, high intensity acoustic emission (AE) signals can be clearly detected when the coating delamination occurs. It is also found that the tangential force increase gradually with the normal force, but fluctuates significantly when the critical load of coating delamination is reached. A three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) model with a cohesive-zone interface was developed to simulate the scratch process, and by comparing with the delamination critical load from the experiment, the interface characteristic length, the maximum strength and the fracture energy can be obtained. The preliminary results indicate that it is feasible to use the FE simulation combined with scratch tests to evaluate the coating interface behaviors.
Effect of MR Fluid Damping during Milling of CFRP LaminatesIJERA Editor
Machining of fiber reinforced composites is an essential activity taken up in order to integrate them with other
components. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are difficult to machine owing to the nonhomogeneity
of their constituent materials and abrasive nature. As these materials involve more than one phase,
the variation of cutting forces is rather large, which leads to tool chatter and poor surface finish. Therefore the
proper selection of the tool, process parameters and the ability to control the machining forces would result in
better tolerances and improved surface finish. In this study, multiple slots are machined in CFRP laminates
under different machining conditions of spindle speed, feed and depth of cut. A comparative study is made by
conducting the same set of experiments under the influence of the magneto- rheological (MR) damping in order
to assess the tool deflection. It is observed that the MR fluid damping reduces the tool deflection and thus
improves the quality of machined surfaces.
Tichomir G. Vasilev, Wear of bronze bearing bushes after finishing with burni...Tihomir Vasilev
The article published results of experimental studies of wear of bronze bearings bushes, after finishing with burnishing.
Research addresses two types of bronze alloys widely used in practice for making bronze bearings operate under boundary or mixed film friction.
ER Publication,
IJETR, IJMCTR,
Journals,
International Journals,
High Impact Journals,
Monthly Journal,
Good quality Journals,
Research,
Research Papers,
Research Article,
Free Journals, Open access Journals,
erpublication.org,
Engineering Journal,
Science Journals,
The report was done to develop a MATLAB model of a suspension system of a 4 wheel vehicle going over an uneven road. A simulink model was developed to simulate the various forces acting on the suspension of the vehicle.
Turbo-Abrasive Machining is an automated mechanical finish method for deburring, edge-contouring and surface finishing complex rotating parts such as those found in the turbine and gear industries
Study of sliding wear rate of hot rolled steel specimen subjected to Zirconia...IJERA Editor
Wear is nothing but loss of material by usage. In a mechanical industry mechanical components will operate
under severe load, temperature and high speeds. Under such a type of situation, when metal to metal contact take
place the surfaces that comes in contact is subjected to wear. These should be considered as a serious affair in an
industry because if the process of wear continues it can reduce service life of the component and also to the
entire mechanical system to which the component has been used. In the light of the above the present work
mainly deals with the study of wear behavior of hot rolled steel with and without zirconia coating on the contact
surface and the effect of zirconia coating with varying thickness.
Turbo abrasive machining tech paper - 2016Dave Davidson
INTRODUCTION: Turbo-Finish technology (also referred to as Turbo-Abrasive Machining) is a dry, high-speed spindle finishing process that utilizes abrasive fluidized bed technology, and high speed part rotation to develop extremely rapid and uniform edge and surface conditioning on aerospace, automotive and industrial parts. Polishing, deburring and edge radiusing are accomplished anywhere that the media can access. This finishing technology can develop isotropic surface finishes s while developing consistent round edges on any exposed sharp edged features.
It's the Finish that Counts. Technical Magazine article reprint.Dave Davidson
A conventionally produced surface (turned, milled,
ground, EDM) is typically Gaussian in nature, that is,
the peak and valley distribution is pretty much equal
in height. This type of surface can be very unstable and
unpredictable when wear and load bearing are considered. The images in Figure 1 demonstrate this type of
surface.
There are many ways to produce plateaued surfaces.
They are varied in approach but all have the ability to
control the surface peak characteristics separately for
the valley characteristics. Methods that are used to improve surfaces for performance and increased service life include centrifugal barrel finishing, turbo-abrasive machining (aka Turbo-Finish) and isotropic micro-finishing with vibratory finishing equipment. For additional technical information and/or elp with free sample part processing contact Dave Davidson at ddavidson@deburring-tech-group.om
CoatingsThe component of material surface is often more importan.docxclarebernice
Coatings
The component of material surface is often more important than inside material. (The surface of a component is usually the most important engineering factor.) The corrosion and friction occurs in workpieces during the usage. (While it is in use it is often the surface of a workpiece that is subjected to wear and corrosion.) Increasing research effort was put in the friction and wear for reducing the capital due to the variety of material properties. (The complexity of the tribological properties of materials and the economic aspects of friction and wear justify an increasing research effort.) In the countries with highly industrialized, about one third of total energy is loss to the friction. (In industrialized countries some 30% of all energy generated is ultimately lost through friction, In the highly industrialized countries losses due to friction and wear are put at between 1 and 2% of gross national product.)The research was target on increase the material’s resistance for wearing purpose. (To an increasing degree therefore, the search is on for surface modification techniques, which can increase the wear resistance of materials.)However, the tratditional treatment on surface usually require immense range of thickness. (Unfortunately, there exists an alomost dewildering choice of surface treatments that cover a wide range of thickness.) The treatment was asked to minimize the original properties cost of material. The choice has to be such that the surface treatment does not impair too much the properties of the substrate for which it was originally chosen; Thus, it should focus on the protect layer of the material itself.that is to say, it should not reduce the load-bearing overlooked frequently in surface engineering, with emphasis put rather more on the protective coating itself. Equally, the surface treatment chosen should be suitably related to the problem to be solved. If a thick layer can protect the material from the wear and corrosive, the resistance properties of material should be considering as a system. Since the workpieces are always in touch with other medias. If a thin protective layer may do the job, it does not make much sense in concentrating on processing of a thick layer on top of a substrate. It worth noting here that wear resistance is a property not of materials but of systems, since the material of the workpiece always wears against some other medium. It is its relation to its environment ( lubrication and speed of sliding/ rotation) that determines the wear resistance of the material in a given construction. In general, hardness and ductility are two properties of interplay of wears. As a general rule, wear is determined by the interplay of two opposing properties: ductility and hardness. Those wear obtain higher ductility because the surface layer does not changed. The plastic deformation was improved while the particles constant as same. wear can be reduced by modifying the surface layer in such a w ...
A Review Tribological analysis of Cast Iron by Advanced Coatingijtsrd
In our engineering system, friction, wear and tribology are not phenomena that most peoples are considering on daily basis. Wear tribological process occurs when two surfaces are in contact and both one are moving relative to each other. The cast iron is widely used in industrial sector. It have high rate of friction. To reduce the friction the various types of coating is analyzed as well as with lubrication the rate of wear decreases. Prof. Matin A. Shaikh | Prof. Ajij A. Shaikh | Prof. Mrs. G. V. Patil ""A Review: Tribological analysis of Cast Iron by Advanced Coating"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-2 , February 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29871.pdf
Paper Url : https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/29871/a-review-tribological-analysis-of-cast-iron-by-advanced-coating/prof-matin-a-shaikh
Mass media finishing techniques improve part performance and service life, and these processes can be tailored or modified to amplify this effect. Although the ability of these processes to drive down deburring and surface finishing costs when compared to manual procedures is well known and documented, their ability to dramatically effect part performance and service life are not. This facet of edge and surface finishing deserves closer scrutiny and this is also true of larger and more complex parts – only more so
A CRITICAL REVIEW ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF WEAR OF MATERIALSIAEME Publication
Many mechanical equipments are subjected to sliding contact in real time applications. Pumps, valves, belt drives, bearings, machinery guide ways, piston- cylinder arrangements etc. are the few important sliding components which are continuously subjected to sliding wear. Much mechanical equipment’s failure occurred due to wear related problems.
Similar to Study of Tribological Properties of Textured Surfaces made by Modulation Assisted Machining (MAM) (20)
A CRITICAL REVIEW ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF WEAR OF MATERIALS
Study of Tribological Properties of Textured Surfaces made by Modulation Assisted Machining (MAM)
1. 1
R I T
Study of Tribological Properties of Textured Surfaces made by
Modulation Assisted Machining
Denny Sebastian1(*)
, P. Iglesias 1
1
Mechanical Engineering Department. Kate Gleason College of Engineering, Rochester
Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, USA.
*dennygsk101@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Surface texturing has long been viewed as a viable option for reducing friction in moving
parts, improving wear resistance and prolonging their life along with other tribological
improvements.
It has been shown that textured surfaces reduce the friction coefficient and wear volume
compared to untextured surfaces. The micro-dimples on the textured surfaces trap
lubricants and create an hydrodynamic pressure between surfaces, thus enhancing
lubrication ability. The dimples or grooves also function as receptacles for debris and
wear particles, eliminating potential scratching of the substrate surface during relative
motion of the interface parts. Several techniques are used for fabrication of textured
surfaces, however there are limitations in terms of control and scalability. Modulation
assisted machining (MAM) has been demonstrated as a viable approach to produce
such textures. MAM is shown to be cost effective for scalable production of these
features on component surfaces.
In this study, the effects of surface texturing and the influence of the dimple dimensions
on wear performance will be observed. Samples of brass 360, and aluminum 6061 T6
will be mated with AISI 440C stainless steel balls using a ball-on-flat reciprocating
configuration. Polyalphaolefin (PAO) oil will be used for lubrication. The wear analysis
will then be carried out using image analysis (optical microscope). Wear mechanisms
are discussed from optical microscopy observations.
KEY WORDS: surface texturing, wear resistance, micro-dimples, modulation
assisted machining, brass 360, aluminum 6061 T6
Fall-Spring, 2014-15
Project with Paper
••
2. 2
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Friction is caused by the dissipation of energy between two bodies in relative contact.
Wear, a byproduct of friction, leads to material losses between moving parts. Friction
may be wanted or unwanted while wear is always considered as unwanted [1]. In
industries, a significant proportion of total revenue is consumed by friction and wear.
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion and
the practices related thereto. The objects of study of tribology include friction, wear,
lubrication, surface science and tribochemistry [2, 3]. Recently, tribology has been
widely recognized as a new general concept embracing all aspects of transmission and
dissipation of energy and materials in mechanical equipment, including the areas of
friction, wear, lubrication, and related fields of science and technology [4].
It has been estimated that approximately 11 % of the total energy annually consumed in
the U.S. in the four major areas of transportation, turbomachinery, power generation
and industrial processes is lost due to firction. These losses can be saved through new
developments in lubrication and tribology [3]. Friction is responsible for a major loss of
useful mechanical energy, and wear is a major reason for replacing equipment. Thus, a
better understanding and utilization of the principles of tribology is particularly important
for conservation of energy and materials in engineering design [4].
The efficiency, reliability, and durability of machine components depend on the friction
occurring at the sliding contact interface. In addition, there is always the desire to
increase the load capacity or the power density of engine elements, which of course will
lead to higher intensities of surface interactions. One method in reducing friction is by
surface lubrication. Surface lubrication involves many aspects of the physical and
chemical properties of the surface material and lubricant. Smoother surfaces have
better friction reduction under lubrication [5].
The improvement of surface finish is one of the most reasonable methods of reducing
friction. Engine friction loss accounts for 40% of the total energy developed by a typical
automotive engine. It is therefore necessary to reduce friction for improved fuel
consumption. This led to an increase in the number of automotive components whose
surfaces are finished with grinding and subsequent additional processes such as
lapping or superfinishing [6-8].
Surface texturing has gained attention in recent years due to the effect of dimples on
tribological performance of the surface. It has been identified that controlled porosity on
a tribological surface can contribute to friction reduction at sliding contact interfaces [7].
The presence of artificially created microfeatures can significantly affect the friction and
wear behaviour of lubricated surfaces [5]. Surface texturing is a refined surface
technology to form regular micro/nanometer-sized dimples or asperities on a smooth
surface by laser processing technology, reactive ion etching technology, photochemical
machining technology and so on [9].
Surface texturing is used as a method to reduce friction and wear and improve the
lubrication ability of various mechanical components; it presents different tribological
3. 3
functions under different lubrication conditions. Under hydrodynamic lubrication
conditions, each micro-dimple behaves as a tiny convergence wedge, which generates
additional hydrodynamic pressure to increase the total load carrying capacity [9]. Under
boundary or mixed lubrication conditions, micro-dimples act as oil reservoirs, the
lubricant is held back in these reservoirs and are considered as a secondary lubrication
source. Upon relative movement between the contacting surfaces, the lubricant is pulled
out of the dimples and permeates into the surrounding surface areas [10-12]. Under dry
friction conditions, micro-dimples also trap wear debris to prevent further abrasive wear,
thus reducing ploughing and deformation components of friction. The effect of micro-
dimples improves the dry running performance of textured surfaces[13].
There are various methods of surface texturing such as laser surface texturing (LST),
electro chemical machining (ECM), vibro-mechanical texturing (VMT), abrasive jet
machining (AJT), sand blasting, and photolithography. Most of these methods have
limitations related with cost effectiveness, use of specialized equipments (as in the case
for laser texturing), rate of production, reliability, environmental conditions, change in
material properties due to laser heating [6]. Recently, the use of Modulation Assisted
Machining (MAM) processes provides a cost effective approach for creating surface
textures over large areas and it offers high control over the geometry of the textured
surfaces [14].
There are few publications on the effect of micro-dimple parameters on the tribological
performances of textured surfaces. In 2003, Wakuda et al. [7] assessed the frictional
properties of textured ceramic surfaces assessed with a pin-on-disk tests. The study
concluded that micro-dimples reduced friction even under severe friction reduction due
to its lubrication retention ability. A dimple size of approximately 100 μm was
recommended; the distribution of micro-dimples is also an important factor. A dimple
density of 5-20% is recommended. The dimple geometry, rounded or angular profiles,
had little influence on the frictional properties of samples.
In the experimental work done by Tang et al. [8], change in dimple area fraction can
dramatically reduce friction and wear. A 5% optimal dimple area fraction generated the
greatest hydrodynamic pressure of all dimple fractions. It had the least wear and friction,
with reductions of 72% and 38%, respectively compared to non-textured surface [8].
Denkena et al. [13], however, found that an increase in dimple depth, ap (ap,max > 30
μm), leads to a parallel increase in friction coefficient. This occurs because large
dimples do not support the load carrying capacity in the same way as small dimples do
leading to higher surface contact in the mixed friction area. Recently, Hao et al. [9],
assessed the effects of dimple area density and diameter size effects on lubrication in
line contacts with cylinder-on-ring tests. The study found that textured specimens with
low dimple area density, 3 %, and large dimple diameter, 150 or 200 μm, reduced the
friction coefficient to some extent as compared to untextured specimens [9].
This work provides a better understanding on the effect of micro dimples in the friction
reduction of textured surfaces. It is important to understand the various parameters of
the dimple geometry to effectively reduce wear on the surface of specimens under
lubricated contact conditions. An optimal value of all dimple parameters would provide
4. 4
the best tribological properties for a textured specimen in achieving higher wear
resistance than an untextured surface of the same specimen.
2.0. MATERIALS & METHODS
In this work, the textured samples of Brass 360, Aluminum 6061 T6 are made by means
of Modulation Assisted Machining. There are two basic configurations: a) Sliding Type,
and b) Plunging Type. In the first configuration, the superimposed modulation is applied
in the direction of tool feed in turning. This configuration is referred to as sliding type,
and the resulting textures are caused by the local material removal occurring at the tool
nose radius as the tool reciprocates repeatedly over the work surface. In plunging type
texturing configurations, the superimposed modulation is applied perpendicular to the
tool field. The resulting textures are created by the repeated engagement-
disengagement of the cutting tool as it enters and exits the periphery of the work
cylinder. Figure 1 shows the schematic representation of the turning in configurations.
Fig.1. Schematic representation of (a) Sliding type texturing and (b) Plunging type texturing.
(c) Configuration to produce textured surface on cylinder face by plunging type texturing.
The samples were tested on a ball-on-flat reciprocating tribometer, shown in figure 2,
against AISI 440C stainless steel balls (3 mm spherical radius, 690 hardness HV). A
series of tests with frequency settings of 1.5 Hz and 3 Hz were carried out under
constant normal load of 23 N. The frequency is set by adjusting the rate of sliding
through an air pressure valve. Two sliding times of 20 minutes and 1 hour were made
for respective tests. A stroke length of 10.5 mm is kept constant for all tests. For
lubrication, 2ml of synthetic poly alpha-olefin oil (Synton PAO 40) is used.
a) b)
c)
5. 5
Fig.2. Schematic representation of ball-on-flat reciprocating tribometer
This project study explores the effect of dimple density on the tribological properties of
textured samples. The textured samples have three different dimple densities- low,
medium and high marked as LDD, MDD and HDD respectively. After testing, the disk
specimens are sent for analysis. The machining and modulation condition of the brass
360 samples and aluminium 6061 T6 samples are shown in table 1.
Table 1: Machining and modulation conditions for samples; where ho=feed rate; Ra= Roughness; App=
modulation amplitude; fm=modulation frequency.
S# Type
Fm
(Hz)
Vpp
(V)
Voff
(V)
App (mm)
C (Tool
offset
position)
h0
(mm/rev)
CSS (sfpm) Material Ra (µm)
6'4 CS Control Sample 0.01 1000RPM Brass 360 0.137
7'1 LDD 100 50 70 0.03 0 1.5 3 Brass 360 0.143
7'2 MDD 100 50 70 0.03 0 1 3 Brass 360 0.221
7'3 HDD 100 50 70 0.03 0 0.5 3 Brass 360 0.175
8'4 CS Control Sample 0.01 1000 RPM Al 6061 T6 0.121
8'1 LDD 100 50 70 0.03 0 1.5 3 Al 6061 T6 0.1
8'2 MDD 100 50 70 0.03 0 1 3 Al 6061 T6 0.175
8'3 HDD 100 50 70 0.03 0 0.5 3 Al 6061 T6 0.175
6. 6
Optical images of brass and aluminium samples are shown in figure 3 and 4
respectively.
Fig.3. Optical images of Brass 360 samples (DD represents dimple density)
Fig.4. Optical images of Al 6061 T6 samples (DD represents dimple density)
The wear measurement is done by image analysis using a Carl Zeiss optical
microscope to obtain optical micrographs of the wear track. An average of 45
measurements of the wear track width is taken. The wear volume is then calculated
according to Eq. 1 [15].
Vf = Ls [ arcsin( ) - (Rf - hf)] + ( 3Rf - hf) (1)
where,
W: wear width Ls: stroke length
Rf: radius of 440C steel ball hf: wear depth
7. 7
Fig.5. Schematic representation of wear track taken by an optical microscope [15].
The primary aim of this study is to observe the effect of dimple density on the
tribological properties of textured surface made by modulation assisted machining
(MAM). The dimple density of a textured sample is calculated by dividing the total sum
of the area of dimples per unit square area by area of the square viewed on a
microscope. Figure 6 (a) and (b) shows a medium dimple density Brass 360 sample and
a high dimple density Al 6061 T6 sample respectively.
Dimple Density= (2)
Fig.6. (a) Brass 360 MDD (b) Aluminium 6061 T6 HDD
3.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION- Brass 360
3.1. Effect of Sliding Frequency
The effect of frequency on the tribological properties of textured surface is studied. The
experimental analysis was performed under a constant load of 23 N and a time of 20
minutes. The samples were tested against a ball-on-flat reciprocating tribometer with
frequencies of 1.5 Hz and 3 Hz. Figure 7 compares the wear volumes of all the four
samples tested under both frequencies. At lower frequency (1.5 Hz), there was no major
differences observed between textured and un-textured surfaces. As frequency
increases, the wear volume showed significant differences between the textured
8. 8
samples and control sample (CS). From the data computed, the textured sample with
medium dimple density had the greatest wear reduction (~50%) compared to the control
sample.
Figure 8 shows the wear track of the MDD and CS samples after testing under the
same experimental conditions. The width of the wear track appears similar between the
MDD sample and control sample when tested under a frequency of 1.5 Hz. At higher
frequency, the wear track width is much wider for the control sample than the MDD
sample.
Fig.7. Effect of frequency on wear volume
Fig.8. Average width of wear track corresponding to conditions of varying frequency under constant load
and sliding time.
1 2 3 4
1.5 Hz 0.0140 0.01286 0.00989 0.01167
3 Hz 0.0359 0.0195 0.0183 0.0248
0.0000
0.0050
0.0100
0.0150
0.0200
0.0250
0.0300
0.0350
0.0400
0.0450
0.0500
WearVolume(mm^3)
Effect of Frequency
- CS - LDD - MDD - HDD- CS - LDD - MDD - HDD
Sliding Time- 20 minutes
Normal Load- 23 N
49 % Wear Reduction
9. 9
3.2. Effect of Sliding Distance
To better understand the effect of sliding distance, the wear factor is taken into account.
Wear factor is defined as the ratio of wear volume of samples to the product of sliding
distance and load.
Wear Factor= (3)
The effect of sliding distance on the wear behavior of samples was carried out under
constant load and frequency. In one case, the sliding distance is kept constant at 76 m,
and tests are carried out. After testing, the sliding distance is increased to 227 m and
the tests are repeated. The wear factor of all samples at varying sliding distance was
compared.
At lower frequency (1.5 Hz), the wear factor analysis did not show significant wear
reductions between the textured samples and the control sample. However, it was
found that when the frequency was increased to 3 Hz, keeping the load constant, the
medium dimple density sample had the greatest wear factor reduction (74% reduction)
with respect to the control sample. The results points to the fact that the brass textured
sample with medium dimple density exhibits better wear resistance than the control
sample.
Fig.9. Effect of sliding distance on wear volume
1 2 3 4
76 m 0.0000410 0.0000112 0.0000105 0.0000142
227 m 0.0000280 0.0000222 0.0000218 0.0000315
0.00E+00
5.00E-06
1.00E-05
1.50E-05
2.00E-05
2.50E-05
3.00E-05
3.50E-05
4.00E-05
4.50E-05
WearFactor(mm^3/Nm)
Effect of Sliding Distance
- LDD- CS - MDD - HDD
Frequency- 3 Hz
Load- 23 N
74 % Wear Reduction
10. 10
3.3. Effect of Normal Load
The effect of normal load on the wear performance of the samples was studied under
constant frequency of 1.5 Hz and a sliding time of 20 minutes. As the normal load
increases, the wear volume of all samples increases. From the analysis, it was
observed that the medium dimple density sample again had better wear resistance with
a wear volume reduction of 41% compared to the control sample.
Figure 11 shows almost similar wear track width between the MDD sample and control
sample at normal loads. As the load increases, the wear track width of control sample is
much wider than the MDD sample.
Fig.10. Effect of load on wear volume
Fig.11. Average width of wear track corresponding to conditions of varying load under constant frequency
and sliding time.
The following tests confirm the theory that increasing the dimple density on the sample
improves the tribological characteristics until an optimum dimple density is reached [7-
9]. Beyond an optimal value of dimple density, the wear volume of the samples was
shown to increase.
1 2 3 4
23 N 0.0140 0.01286 0.00989 0.01167
34 N 0.0304 0.02076 0.01792 0.02616
0.0000
0.0050
0.0100
0.0150
0.0200
0.0250
0.0300
0.0350
0.0400
0.0450
0.0500
WearVolume(mm^3)
Effect of Load
- CS
Frequency- 1.5 Hz
Sliding Time- 20 mins
- LDD - MDD - HDD
41 % Wear Reduction
11. 11
4.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION- Aluminum 6061 T6
4.1. Effect of Sliding Frequency
The experimental analysis was performed under a constant load of 23 N and a time of
20 minutes. The samples were tested against a ball-on-flat reciprocating tribometer with
frequencies of 1.5 Hz and 3 Hz. At lower frequency (1.5 Hz), it was shown that the high
dimple density sample exhibited better wear reduction than the control sample with a
wear reduction of 35%. This is somewhat consistent with the findings that an increase in
dimple density leads to reduced wear volume. At higher frequency, there was no
significant difference between the textured and un-textured surfaces.
Fig.13 shows the wear track measurement of both samples. Even though the wear track
of HDD sample seems higher than the control sample (CS), the micro-dimples reduce
the overall wear track width of the HDD sample thus leading to lesser wear volume.
Fig.12. Effect of Frequency on wear volume
Fig.13. Average width of wear track corresponding to conditions of varying frequency under constant load
and sliding time.
1 2 3 4
1.5 Hz 0.0098 0.00783 0.00722 0.00634
3 Hz 0.0092 0.0080 0.0090 0.0105
0.0000
0.0025
0.0050
0.0075
0.0100
0.0125
0.0150
WearVolume(mm^3)
Effect of Frequency
) CS ) LDD ) MDD ) HDD
Load- 23 N
Sliding Time- 20 minutes
35 % Wear Reduction
12. 12
4.2. Effect of Sliding Distance
The wear factor was taken into account to study the effect of sliding distance. Keeping
frequency constant at 1.5 Hz, and a normal load of 23 N, the experimental analysis was
carried out. At a sliding distance of 38 m, the high dimple density sample was again the
most wear resistant material, showing a wear volume reduction of 35% with respect to
the control sample. As sliding distance increases, the samples exhibited a marked
increase in the wear volume.
The results, once again supports the findings that textured samples with increasing
dimple density have the ability to act as a secondary lubrication source and reduce wear
volume by a significant margin as compared to untextured surfaces.
Fig.14. Effect of sliding distance on wear volume
4.3. Effect of Normal Load
The conditions for the test were a constant frequency of 1.5 Hz and a sliding time of 20
minutes. As can be seen from figure 15, an increase in the normal load increases the
wear volume of the samples. At lower normal loads, the wear volume of high dimple
density sample had 35% lower wear volume than that of control sample. Under higher
loads, the lower dimple density sample showed a better wear volume reduction of 25%
with respect to the control sample. The high dimple density sample had only 23% wear
reduction compared to the control sample at the higher load conditions.
Fig.16 shows the wear track measurement of LDD sample and the control sample.
Under low frequency conditions, the wear track width of the LDD sample is less than the
control sample. At higher frequency test, the wear track width of the LDD sample seems
13. 13
similar to the control sample; the micro-dimples reduce the overall wear track width of
the LDD sample, thus leading to lesser wear volume than control sample.
Fig.15. Effect of Load on wear volume
Fig.16. Average width of wear track corresponding to conditions of varying load under constant frequency
and sliding time.
The results of the aluminum 6061 T6 samples are consistent with the theory of dimple
density as an important parameter in improving the tribological characteristics of
textured surfaces. This study infers that an optimum value of dimple density is required
to obtain the best wear reduction. The optimum value of dimple density varies with
regard to material of specimen, experimental conditions and machining of textured
surfaces.
1 2 3 4
23 N 0.0098 0.00783 0.00722 0.00634
34 N 0.0199 0.01490 0.01833 0.01519
0.0000
0.0050
0.0100
0.0150
0.0200
0.0250
0.0300
WearVolume(mm^3)
Effect of Load
) CS ) LDD ) MDD ) HDD
Frequency: 1.5 Hz
Sliding Time: 20 minutes
25 % Wear Reduction
14. 14
5.0. WEAR MECHANISM
5.1. Plastic Deformation and Roller Abrasion
During the tests, it was observed that the samples exhibited plastic deformation along
the wear track. The extent of plastic deformation increases at higher load and frequency
conditions and was more pronounced on control samples as shown in figure 17.
For Brass 360 tests, the AISI 440C steel balls showed a layer of brass particles adhered
on the contact surface. For the Aluminum 6061 T6 test, there was no noticeable
adherence of aluminum particles; instead there was an abrasion of the steel material on
the contact surface. This occurred under a load of 34 N, at a frequency of 1.5 Hz and
sliding time of 1 hour.
Figure 18 (a) and (b) shows the adherence of brass particles and removal of roller
material at the contact surface respectively.
Fig.17. Plastic deformation along wear track
Fig.18. Optical microscopic images of roller; arrow indicates- (a) Adherence of brass particles
(b) Removal of roller material at contact surface after testing with Al 6061 T6 sample
15. 15
5.2. Wear Profile
The wear profile of the sample specimens was carried out using a Taylor-Hobson
profilometer. From figure 19, it is clearly evident that the textured sample of brass
(MDD) has a lower wear volume than the control sample.
Aluminum samples, however, did not have a noticeable difference in the wear profile, in
terms of wear reduction, between textured and untextured surfaces as shown in figure
20.
Fig.19. Wear Profile of Brass 360 samples
Fig.20. Wear Profile of Aluminum 6061 T6 samples
16. 16
6.0. CONCLUSION
This project explores the effects of surface texturing on the tribological properties of
sample specimens. It takes into the account the influence of dimple density on the wear
performance of the surface performed under lubricated contact conditions with a ball-
on-flat reciprocating tribometer. The concluding remarks of this project are outlined as
follows:
1. The experimental analysis showed that, under controlled machining conditions,
textured surfaces exhibited better wear performance than untextured surfaces. The
textured surfaces also achieved better wear reduction under increasing frequency
and load.
2. For Brass 360 samples, under high frequency and load conditions, the medium
dimple density sample was found to be the most wear resistant material achieving a
wear volume reduction greater than 40% with respect to the control sample. An
increase in dimple density improves the wear performance until a certain value
known as optimum dimple density is reached. Increasing the dimple density beyond
the optimum dimple density leads to an increase in the wear volume of the
samples.
3. Aluminum 6061 T6 samples showed similar results with textured samples having
better wear performance compared to the control sample. An increase in dimple
density led to better wear resistance with respect to control sample. Under
conditions of low frequency and increasing load, the high dimple density (HDD)
sample exhibited wear reduction of more than 23% as compared to an untextured
sample of the same specimen.
4. The lack of adherence of wear particles of aluminum material on to the contact
surface of the roller could be due to the softer metal matrix of aluminum. For brass
360 tests, the wear particles adhered well on the contactsurface of roller.
5. The softer metal matrix of aluminum could also be one of the reasons why the wear
profile of the high dimple density sample is deeper than that of the control sample.
The micro-dimples allowed easier penetration of the roller into the aluminum sample
during testing which led to a deeper wear track profile than the control sample.
6. The study confirms the findings made by [7-9] that the effect of wear reduction of
textured surface is characteristic of the dimples' ability to act as fluid reservoirs and
provide lubrication retention at the contact interface. It also shows that an optimal
value of dimple density on a textured sample specimen yields the best wear
reduction and the greatest hydrodynamic pressure at the contact surface, thus
improving the lubrication retention ability of the micro-dimples at higher load and
frequency under lubricated contact conditions.
17. 17
7.0. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my advisor, Dr. Patricia Iglesias
Victoria, for her guidance in the development of this project. This project with paper
would not have been possible without her help. I would also like to thank Dr. Haselkorn,
and Mr. Maiola for their assistance.
I also acknowledge the financial support from the FEAD grant program at the Rochester
Institute of Technology.
18. 18
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[15] Jun, Q., and Truhan, J. J., 2006, "An Efficient Method for Accurately Determining Wear Volumes of
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