The document summarizes the geological time scale, which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on major events. It describes the progression of life from the earliest formation of the planet with no life to later eons seeing simple single-celled life and eventually more complex organisms like dinosaurs and mammals. The time scale provides scientists a way to describe the timing and relationships between past Earth events and evolutionary changes.
The geologic time scale is a system used by scientists to describe Earth's history by dividing it into standardized units of time based on stratigraphy and significant events. The first geologic time scale was proposed in 1913 and has since been refined using data from radiometric dating and revisions to the fossil record. It divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs with the Phanerozoic Eon being the most recent period of time spanning from over 500 million years ago to present day.
The document provides information about the geologic time scale. It begins by defining the geologic time scale as a timeline that chronologically relates geological eras, periods and epochs based on stratigraphy and life forms throughout Earth's history.
It then outlines the four main divisions of the geologic time scale - eon, era, period, epoch. The rest of the document describes each of the eons, eras, periods and epochs in detail, providing the time ranges and key events that occurred during each period of Earth's history from the Pre-Cambrian eon to the present Holocene epoch. It also includes two short tests at the end to assess comprehension.
The document provides information about the Geologic Time Scale, which is a system that chronologically relates geological strata and fossils to time periods in Earth's history. It describes the four main divisions of the Geologic Time Scale (eon, era, period, epoch) and discusses some of the major time periods within each, including key events and life forms that existed during these periods, from the earliest parts of Earth's history to the present day. A brief quiz is included at the end to test the reader's understanding.
To determine the age of the Earth, scientists use radiometric dating to measure the ages of rocks from Earth, the Moon, and meteorites. The oldest dated rocks on Earth are around 4 billion years old. Moon rocks have been dated to between 4.4-4.5 billion years old. Meteorites have been dated to around 5 billion years old. Considering all of this evidence together, scientists estimate the age of the Earth to be approximately 4.6 billion years old, with an uncertainty of less than 1%.
The document summarizes the geological time scale which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and radiometric evidence. The four eons are the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and current Phanerozoic eon which is divided into the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and current Cenozoic era. Key periods include the Cambrian which saw an explosion of life, the Devonian which was the age of fishes, and the Mesozoic era in which reptiles dominated until the rise of mammals in the Cenozoic. The geological time scale provides a framework for understanding how life and the planet have evolved over
Fossils provide important information about past plant and animal life on Earth. They form through a process called fossilization when remains become buried in sediment and over time the sediment hardens into rock, preserving the remains. There are many types of fossils including body fossils, trace fossils, molds/casts, and carbonized or permineralized fossils. The geological time scale maps Earth's history in distinct periods based on fossils and rock layers. Key periods include the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Fossils are important for understanding evolution and how life has changed over geological time.
The document summarizes the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into units of time based on changes in lifeforms and geology. It describes the largest divisions as eons, which are divided into eras, then periods and epochs. Key periods mentioned include the Carboniferous when coal plants formed coal deposits, the Permian which saw the largest mass extinction, the Jurassic when dinosaurs and mammals emerged, and the Cretaceous when dinosaurs went extinct. The document also briefly outlines the major eras and periods in Earth's history from the earliest Cryptozoic Eon to the current Cenozoic Era.
The geologic time scale is a system used by scientists to describe Earth's history by dividing it into standardized units of time based on stratigraphy and significant events. The first geologic time scale was proposed in 1913 and has since been refined using data from radiometric dating and revisions to the fossil record. It divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs with the Phanerozoic Eon being the most recent period of time spanning from over 500 million years ago to present day.
The document provides information about the geologic time scale. It begins by defining the geologic time scale as a timeline that chronologically relates geological eras, periods and epochs based on stratigraphy and life forms throughout Earth's history.
It then outlines the four main divisions of the geologic time scale - eon, era, period, epoch. The rest of the document describes each of the eons, eras, periods and epochs in detail, providing the time ranges and key events that occurred during each period of Earth's history from the Pre-Cambrian eon to the present Holocene epoch. It also includes two short tests at the end to assess comprehension.
The document provides information about the Geologic Time Scale, which is a system that chronologically relates geological strata and fossils to time periods in Earth's history. It describes the four main divisions of the Geologic Time Scale (eon, era, period, epoch) and discusses some of the major time periods within each, including key events and life forms that existed during these periods, from the earliest parts of Earth's history to the present day. A brief quiz is included at the end to test the reader's understanding.
To determine the age of the Earth, scientists use radiometric dating to measure the ages of rocks from Earth, the Moon, and meteorites. The oldest dated rocks on Earth are around 4 billion years old. Moon rocks have been dated to between 4.4-4.5 billion years old. Meteorites have been dated to around 5 billion years old. Considering all of this evidence together, scientists estimate the age of the Earth to be approximately 4.6 billion years old, with an uncertainty of less than 1%.
The document summarizes the geological time scale which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and radiometric evidence. The four eons are the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and current Phanerozoic eon which is divided into the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and current Cenozoic era. Key periods include the Cambrian which saw an explosion of life, the Devonian which was the age of fishes, and the Mesozoic era in which reptiles dominated until the rise of mammals in the Cenozoic. The geological time scale provides a framework for understanding how life and the planet have evolved over
Fossils provide important information about past plant and animal life on Earth. They form through a process called fossilization when remains become buried in sediment and over time the sediment hardens into rock, preserving the remains. There are many types of fossils including body fossils, trace fossils, molds/casts, and carbonized or permineralized fossils. The geological time scale maps Earth's history in distinct periods based on fossils and rock layers. Key periods include the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Fossils are important for understanding evolution and how life has changed over geological time.
The document summarizes the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into units of time based on changes in lifeforms and geology. It describes the largest divisions as eons, which are divided into eras, then periods and epochs. Key periods mentioned include the Carboniferous when coal plants formed coal deposits, the Permian which saw the largest mass extinction, the Jurassic when dinosaurs and mammals emerged, and the Cretaceous when dinosaurs went extinct. The document also briefly outlines the major eras and periods in Earth's history from the earliest Cryptozoic Eon to the current Cenozoic Era.
The document summarizes the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into sections including eons, eras, periods and epochs. The largest section is the eon, with the Precambrian and Phanerozoic eons covering over 4 billion years of history. Key events mentioned include the first life forms in the Archean era, marine invertebrates in the Proterozoic, and the rise of dinosaurs, mammals and modern life forms in the Phanerozoic. Several important periods are highlighted such as the Carboniferous, Permian, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.
The document summarizes Earth's geologic history condensed into one calendar year. Key events include:
- By March, oceans formed but no life existed on the barren planet.
- First life emerged in April in the form of single-celled organisms near ocean vents.
- By December, more complex sea creatures evolved and the first plants colonized land despite heavy rains.
- On December 31st, early humans appeared in the last hour of the year along with Neanderthals and cave drawings. Modern civilizations emerged in the final minutes.
The document summarizes the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into sections called eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on major changes. It describes several important periods including the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. The Paleozoic era saw the first appearance of hard-shelled animals and plants colonizing land. It ended in a mass extinction event. The Mesozoic era was dominated by reptiles such as dinosaurs, until another mass extinction wiped them out. The current Cenozoic era is when mammals and eventually humans evolved.
Fossils and the Rock Record acloutier copyright 2011 FebruaryAnnie C. Cloutier
This document summarizes key concepts about measuring geological time and dating rocks and fossils. It explains that Earth's history is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs on the geologic time scale (GTS). It describes the major eras - Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic - and the distribution of life over time. The document also discusses relative dating methods based on principles like superposition and cross-cutting relationships, and absolute dating using radioactive isotopes to determine the precise ages of rocks and fossils.
The document discusses the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary, which remains controversial despite ongoing research. Radioactive dating and other stratigraphic methods have advanced our understanding of early Cambrian evolution. Laminated stromatolites from the Precambrian provide fossil evidence, while biosedimentary structures indicate the boundary location. Determining an accurate timeframe for the boundary is difficult as evidence suggests a transition period of 30-50 million years between Ediacaran fauna (620-700 million years ago) and the appearance of trilobites.
The document summarizes the geological time scale which divides Earth's history into standardized units of time. It discusses the major eons, eras, and periods that make up the time scale based on studying rock layers and fossils. Key events include the earliest life in the Archean Era, mass extinctions like the Permian extinction, dinosaurs dominating the Jurassic period, and the asteroid impact that wiped out dinosaurs in the Cretaceous period, paving the way for modern mammals including humans in the Quaternary period. The geological time scale provides context for major developments in Earth's 4.6 billion year history.
1) The document discusses the geological time scale which is used to divide Earth's history into standardized units including eras, periods, and epochs.
2) Scientists have studied rocks and fossils worldwide to develop the time scale and determine how life has changed over time on Earth.
3) Major events in Earth's history like asteroid impacts have caused mass extinctions and influenced the conditions and diversity of life.
The document discusses the Geological Time Scale which is used to divide Earth's history into eras, periods and epochs based on fossil and rock evidence. It describes the major eras - Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic - along with key environmental conditions and lifeforms that existed during each era, noting major extinction events. The timeline shows how life on Earth has evolved and changed dramatically over its approximately 4.5 billion year history.
Fossils are formed through the mineral replacement or preservation of plant and animal remains over time. Relative dating methods determine the sequence of geological events without providing absolute ages, while absolute dating using radiometric methods like radiocarbon dating provides numerical ages by measuring radioactive decay. Mass extinctions have occurred throughout Earth's history, including the end-Cretaceous extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs. Key events in southern Africa include some of the earliest fossil evidence of life, mammal-like reptiles and dinosaurs from the Karoo and Drakensberg mountains, and early human ancestors like Australopithecus.
The document summarizes key aspects of geologic timescales including:
1) Rock layers at places like the Grand Canyon provide evidence of nearly 2 billion years of Earth's history. Fossils preserved in sedimentary rocks also provide information about geologic eras.
2) Geologists have divided Earth's history into a geologic timescale including eons, eras, periods, and epochs to better study the planet's natural history.
3) Mass extinction events have occurred where a large percentage of species suddenly die off, such as the extinction that ended the Paleozoic era killing nearly 90% of marine species. Climate changes are believed to be a cause of some extinctions.
The document summarizes the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and radiometric evidence. The eons are the Archaean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras - the Paleozoic era which contained six periods including the Cambrian and Carboniferous; the Mesozoic era known as the 'Age of Reptiles' containing the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods; and the Cenozoic era known as the 'Age of Mammals' containing the Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary periods
The geological timescale divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and rock evidence. The two eons are the Precambrian (earliest life) and Phanerozoic (complex life). Major periods include the Carboniferous (coal plants), Permian (mass extinction), Jurassic (rise of dinosaurs), and Cretaceous (asteroid impact killed dinosaurs). Today we are in the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era.
This document provides an overview of geologic time and the development of the geologic time scale. It discusses how the time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on changes in fossil records. Key principles that helped establish the time scale are described, such as superposition, horizontality, original lateral continuity, and biologic succession. Important scientists like Steno, Hutton, and Smith who contributed to understanding geologic time and stratigraphy are also mentioned. Absolute and relative dating methods are briefly introduced.
The document provides an overview of the history of life on Earth. It discusses the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil evidence. The five major mass extinction events are identified, including the most severe Permian extinction approximately 250 million years ago which wiped out over 95% of species. The document also notes recent proposals for the Anthropocene epoch to represent the geological era of human civilization's impact on the planet.
The document summarizes the Geologic Time Scale, which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on major geological events. It describes the four eons - Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic - and provides details about key periods within the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic eons, including major developments in life forms. It also outlines the basic structure and units of the Geologic Time Scale.
The document summarizes the geological time scale which divides Earth's history into different eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and stratigraphic evidence. It describes the four eons of Earth's history starting with the Hadean and Archean eons of the earliest lifeforms like bacteria. It then outlines the major eras - Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic - describing some of the significant lifeforms, events, and environmental changes that occurred during each period within these eras. The largest unit of the geological time scale is the eon, while the smallest is the epoch.
The document summarizes the geological time scale which divides Earth's history into different eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and stratigraphic evidence. It describes the four eons of Earth's history starting with the Hadean and Archean eons of the earliest lifeforms like bacteria. It then outlines the major eras - Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic - describing some of the significant lifeforms, events, and environmental changes that occurred during each period within these eras. The largest unit of the geological time scale is the eon, while the smallest is the epoch.
- Scientists use relative dating and absolute dating techniques to determine the age of rocks and develop the geologic time scale, which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. Relative dating looks at the positions of rock layers, while absolute dating uses radioactive isotopes to determine precise ages. Absolute ages are then compared to the geologic time scale to place events in context.
The document summarizes key events in Earth's history from the formation of the solar system to the present. It describes the origin of life beginning with simple prokaryotes over 3 billion years ago. The first complex eukaryotic cells emerged around 1.7 billion years ago, followed by multicellular organisms over 700 million years ago. The development of land plants and animals is outlined through the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, along with changing climates and configurations of the Earth's continents and oceans. Absolute and relative dating methods are also summarized that are used to determine the age of geological features and fossils.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
The document summarizes the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into sections including eons, eras, periods and epochs. The largest section is the eon, with the Precambrian and Phanerozoic eons covering over 4 billion years of history. Key events mentioned include the first life forms in the Archean era, marine invertebrates in the Proterozoic, and the rise of dinosaurs, mammals and modern life forms in the Phanerozoic. Several important periods are highlighted such as the Carboniferous, Permian, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.
The document summarizes Earth's geologic history condensed into one calendar year. Key events include:
- By March, oceans formed but no life existed on the barren planet.
- First life emerged in April in the form of single-celled organisms near ocean vents.
- By December, more complex sea creatures evolved and the first plants colonized land despite heavy rains.
- On December 31st, early humans appeared in the last hour of the year along with Neanderthals and cave drawings. Modern civilizations emerged in the final minutes.
The document summarizes the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into sections called eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on major changes. It describes several important periods including the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. The Paleozoic era saw the first appearance of hard-shelled animals and plants colonizing land. It ended in a mass extinction event. The Mesozoic era was dominated by reptiles such as dinosaurs, until another mass extinction wiped them out. The current Cenozoic era is when mammals and eventually humans evolved.
Fossils and the Rock Record acloutier copyright 2011 FebruaryAnnie C. Cloutier
This document summarizes key concepts about measuring geological time and dating rocks and fossils. It explains that Earth's history is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs on the geologic time scale (GTS). It describes the major eras - Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic - and the distribution of life over time. The document also discusses relative dating methods based on principles like superposition and cross-cutting relationships, and absolute dating using radioactive isotopes to determine the precise ages of rocks and fossils.
The document discusses the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary, which remains controversial despite ongoing research. Radioactive dating and other stratigraphic methods have advanced our understanding of early Cambrian evolution. Laminated stromatolites from the Precambrian provide fossil evidence, while biosedimentary structures indicate the boundary location. Determining an accurate timeframe for the boundary is difficult as evidence suggests a transition period of 30-50 million years between Ediacaran fauna (620-700 million years ago) and the appearance of trilobites.
The document summarizes the geological time scale which divides Earth's history into standardized units of time. It discusses the major eons, eras, and periods that make up the time scale based on studying rock layers and fossils. Key events include the earliest life in the Archean Era, mass extinctions like the Permian extinction, dinosaurs dominating the Jurassic period, and the asteroid impact that wiped out dinosaurs in the Cretaceous period, paving the way for modern mammals including humans in the Quaternary period. The geological time scale provides context for major developments in Earth's 4.6 billion year history.
1) The document discusses the geological time scale which is used to divide Earth's history into standardized units including eras, periods, and epochs.
2) Scientists have studied rocks and fossils worldwide to develop the time scale and determine how life has changed over time on Earth.
3) Major events in Earth's history like asteroid impacts have caused mass extinctions and influenced the conditions and diversity of life.
The document discusses the Geological Time Scale which is used to divide Earth's history into eras, periods and epochs based on fossil and rock evidence. It describes the major eras - Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic - along with key environmental conditions and lifeforms that existed during each era, noting major extinction events. The timeline shows how life on Earth has evolved and changed dramatically over its approximately 4.5 billion year history.
Fossils are formed through the mineral replacement or preservation of plant and animal remains over time. Relative dating methods determine the sequence of geological events without providing absolute ages, while absolute dating using radiometric methods like radiocarbon dating provides numerical ages by measuring radioactive decay. Mass extinctions have occurred throughout Earth's history, including the end-Cretaceous extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs. Key events in southern Africa include some of the earliest fossil evidence of life, mammal-like reptiles and dinosaurs from the Karoo and Drakensberg mountains, and early human ancestors like Australopithecus.
The document summarizes key aspects of geologic timescales including:
1) Rock layers at places like the Grand Canyon provide evidence of nearly 2 billion years of Earth's history. Fossils preserved in sedimentary rocks also provide information about geologic eras.
2) Geologists have divided Earth's history into a geologic timescale including eons, eras, periods, and epochs to better study the planet's natural history.
3) Mass extinction events have occurred where a large percentage of species suddenly die off, such as the extinction that ended the Paleozoic era killing nearly 90% of marine species. Climate changes are believed to be a cause of some extinctions.
The document summarizes the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and radiometric evidence. The eons are the Archaean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras - the Paleozoic era which contained six periods including the Cambrian and Carboniferous; the Mesozoic era known as the 'Age of Reptiles' containing the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods; and the Cenozoic era known as the 'Age of Mammals' containing the Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary periods
The geological timescale divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and rock evidence. The two eons are the Precambrian (earliest life) and Phanerozoic (complex life). Major periods include the Carboniferous (coal plants), Permian (mass extinction), Jurassic (rise of dinosaurs), and Cretaceous (asteroid impact killed dinosaurs). Today we are in the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era.
This document provides an overview of geologic time and the development of the geologic time scale. It discusses how the time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on changes in fossil records. Key principles that helped establish the time scale are described, such as superposition, horizontality, original lateral continuity, and biologic succession. Important scientists like Steno, Hutton, and Smith who contributed to understanding geologic time and stratigraphy are also mentioned. Absolute and relative dating methods are briefly introduced.
The document provides an overview of the history of life on Earth. It discusses the geologic time scale which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil evidence. The five major mass extinction events are identified, including the most severe Permian extinction approximately 250 million years ago which wiped out over 95% of species. The document also notes recent proposals for the Anthropocene epoch to represent the geological era of human civilization's impact on the planet.
The document summarizes the Geologic Time Scale, which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on major geological events. It describes the four eons - Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic - and provides details about key periods within the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic eons, including major developments in life forms. It also outlines the basic structure and units of the Geologic Time Scale.
The document summarizes the geological time scale which divides Earth's history into different eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and stratigraphic evidence. It describes the four eons of Earth's history starting with the Hadean and Archean eons of the earliest lifeforms like bacteria. It then outlines the major eras - Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic - describing some of the significant lifeforms, events, and environmental changes that occurred during each period within these eras. The largest unit of the geological time scale is the eon, while the smallest is the epoch.
The document summarizes the geological time scale which divides Earth's history into different eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil and stratigraphic evidence. It describes the four eons of Earth's history starting with the Hadean and Archean eons of the earliest lifeforms like bacteria. It then outlines the major eras - Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic - describing some of the significant lifeforms, events, and environmental changes that occurred during each period within these eras. The largest unit of the geological time scale is the eon, while the smallest is the epoch.
- Scientists use relative dating and absolute dating techniques to determine the age of rocks and develop the geologic time scale, which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. Relative dating looks at the positions of rock layers, while absolute dating uses radioactive isotopes to determine precise ages. Absolute ages are then compared to the geologic time scale to place events in context.
The document summarizes key events in Earth's history from the formation of the solar system to the present. It describes the origin of life beginning with simple prokaryotes over 3 billion years ago. The first complex eukaryotic cells emerged around 1.7 billion years ago, followed by multicellular organisms over 700 million years ago. The development of land plants and animals is outlined through the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, along with changing climates and configurations of the Earth's continents and oceans. Absolute and relative dating methods are also summarized that are used to determine the age of geological features and fossils.
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Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
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Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...Open Access Research Paper
Water contamination is one of the major causes of water borne diseases worldwide. In Kenya, approximately 43% of people lack access to potable water due to human contamination. River Kuywa water is currently experiencing contamination due to human activities. Its water is widely used for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This study aimed at characterizing bacteria and fungi in river Kuywa water. Water samples were randomly collected from four sites of the river: site A (Matisi), site B (Ngwelo), site C (Nzoia water pump) and site D (Chalicha), during the dry season (January-March 2018) and wet season (April-July 2018) and were transported to Maseno University Microbiology and plant pathology laboratory for analysis. The characterization and identification of bacteria and fungi were carried out using standard microbiological techniques. Nine bacterial genera and three fungi were identified from Kuywa river water. Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp., Proteus spp. and Salmonella spp. Fungi were Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus complex and Penicillium species. Wet season recorded highest bacterial and fungal counts (6.61-7.66 and 3.83-6.75cfu/ml) respectively. The results indicated that the river Kuywa water is polluted and therefore unsafe for human consumption before treatment. It is therefore recommended that the communities to ensure that they boil water especially for drinking.
2. Geologic time scale
A systematic and chronological organization of
ti l t d t th hi t f th E th d
time related to the history of the Earth and
universe used by scientists (geologists,
paleontologists, astronomers) to describe the
timing and relationships between events that
g p
have occurred during the history of the Earth
4. What is the Earth’s time scale?
What is the Earth’s time scale?
The
The Geological time scale
Geological time scale is a record of the
is a record of the
life forms and geological events in Earth’s
life forms and geological events in Earth’s
g g
g g
history.
history.
Scientists developed the time scale by studying
Scientists developed the time scale by studying
Scientists developed the time scale by studying
Scientists developed the time scale by studying
rock layers and fossils
rock layers and fossils world wide.
world wide.
Radioactive dating
Radioactive dating helped determine the
helped determine the
absolute divisions in the time scale.
absolute divisions in the time scale.
absolute divisions in the time scale.
absolute divisions in the time scale.
5. Geologic time scale
Time
Time-
-line of Earth’s history
line of Earth’s history
Breaks down Earth’s history into units of time
Breaks down Earth’s history into units of time
y
y
6. The Earth solidified and became a planet about 4.6
billion years ago
billion years ago.
Geologist have subdivided this 4.6 billion years into
Eons, Eras, and Periods.
These divisions are based upon major trends in the
These divisions are based upon major trends in the
evolution of life on earth according to fossil records.
In particular, the boundaries between the geologic eras
represent times where mass extinctions have occurred.
7. Geologic Time
d d d h l i d l i h i fi
In order to understand how geologists deal with time we first
need to understand the concepts of relative age and absolute
age.
Relative age : Relative means that we can determine if
hi i h ld h hi l
something is younger than or older than something else.
Relative time does not tell how old something is, all we know is
th f t
the sequence of events.
For example: Granite in this area is older than the Basalt.
Absolute age: Absolute age means that we can more or less
precisely assign a number (in years minutes seconds or some
precisely assign a number (in years, minutes, seconds, or some
other units of time) to the amount of time that has passed. Thus
we can say how old something is.
y g
For example: The sandstone is 2300 million years old.
8. Eras
Eras are the
are the largest unit
largest unit of time
of time.
.
g
g
Paleozoic
Paleozoic
Mesozoic
Mesozoic
Mesozoic
Mesozoic
Cenozoic
Cenozoic
Eras
Eras are divided into smaller parts called
are divided into smaller parts called periods
periods.
.
Eras
Eras are divided into smaller parts called
are divided into smaller parts called periods
periods.
.
P i d
P i d h di id d i ll
h di id d i ll
Periods
Periods are then divided into even smaller parts
are then divided into even smaller parts
called
called epochs
epochs.
.
Epochs
Epochs are then divided into even smaller parts
are then divided into even smaller parts
Epochs
Epochs are then divided into even smaller parts
are then divided into even smaller parts
called
called Age.
Age.
12. Eon Era Period
Quaternary
Cenozoic Neogene
Paleogene
Cretaceous
Phanerozoic
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
(542 my –
recent)
Permian Period
Carboniferous Period:
Palaeozoic
Devonian Period
Silurian Period
Ordovician Period
Cambrian Period
Precambrian
Proterozoic
(2500 – 542 my)
Neoproterozoic,
Mesoproterozoic, Paleoproterozoic
Archean Neoarchean Mesoarchean
Precambrian Archean
(4000 – 2500my)
Neoarchean, Mesoarchean,
Paleoarchean, Eoarchean
Hadean (~4600 – 4000 my)
13. Precambrian
Precambrian
Precambrian
Precambrian
Earliest span of time in Earth’s history.
Earliest span of time in Earth’s history.
No life for a long time and then
No life for a long time and then very
very simple
simple
life appears.
life appears.
E l lif i fl d b l d
E l lif i fl d b l d
Early life influenced by volcanoes and
Early life influenced by volcanoes and
mountain building
mountain building
14. Paleozoic Era
Paleozoic Era
Paleozoic Era
Paleozoic Era
Took place after Precambrian.
Took place after Precambrian.
E l i b d hibi
E l i b d hibi
Early invertebrates and amphibians,
Early invertebrates and amphibians,
“Age of Fishes”
“Age of Fishes”
Age of Fishes .
Age of Fishes .
Tropical climates allowed growth of new species
Tropical climates allowed growth of new species
Tropical climates allowed growth of new species
Tropical climates allowed growth of new species
Mass extinction at end most marine invertebrates
Mass extinction at end most marine invertebrates
disappeared.
disappeared.
15. Mesozoic Era
Mesozoic Era
Mesozoic Era
Mesozoic Era
Took place after Paleozoic Era.
Took place after Paleozoic Era.
Reptiles, small mammals, and small birds.
Reptiles, small mammals, and small birds.
“A f R til ”
“A f R til ” di t
di t
“Age of Reptiles”
“Age of Reptiles” -
-dinosaurs, etc
dinosaurs, etc
Late mass extinction by asteroid or climate
Late mass extinction by asteroid or climate
Late mass extinction by asteroid or climate
Late mass extinction by asteroid or climate
change that caused dinosaurs to go extinct.
change that caused dinosaurs to go extinct.
16.
17.
18.
19. Cenozoic Era
Cenozoic Era
Cenozoic Era
Cenozoic Era
The Era we are currently in!!!
The Era we are currently in!!!
Mammals, flowering plants, humans.
Mammals, flowering plants, humans.
“Age of Mammals”
“Age of Mammals”
W ill h h di i b ld h b
W ill h h di i b ld h b
We still have much diversity but could there be a
We still have much diversity but could there be a
mass extinction to come???
mass extinction to come???
20.
21. GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
MYA ERA PERIOD EPOCH LIFE
0 01 Holocene
-Mastadons become extinct
Human culture flourishes
0.01
Quaternary
Holocene -Human culture flourishes
-Accelerating extinction of many species
1.8 Pleistocene -Modern humans develop
Cenozoic
“Age of
Mammals”
5.3 Pliocene Hominids develop
23.8 Miocene Horses, mastadons, mammoths, tigers, and camels
Tertiary
33.7 Oligocene Cats, dogs, and apes appear
54.8 Eocene
-Grass spreads widely
-Diverse array of animals develop, including whales,
hi d l h t
rhinos, and elephants
65.0 Paleocene
-First horses appear (size of a cat)
-Tropical plants dominate
-T-Rex develops but number of dinosaur species
144
Mesozoic
“Age of
Reptiles”
Cretaceous
decline
-Snakes appear and first primates appear
-Angiosperms appear
206 Jurassic
-First birds appear
Reptiles
206 Jurassic
-Golden age of dinosaurs
248 Triassic
First dinosaurs, mammals, crinoids, and modern
echinoids appear
290 Permian
-90% of Earth’s species become extinct, including
trilobites, blastoids, fish and amphibians because of
heavy volcanism.
22. 320
Carbo
Pennsylvania
n
-Reptiles develop from amphibians
-Flying insects appear
oniferous
354
Mississippia
n
-First seed plants appear
-Sea life flourishes including coral, brachiopods, blastoids,
and bryozoa
417 Devonian
-Dominant animals: fish
-Amphibians, evergreens and ferns appear
443 Sil i Fi t l d l t d l d i l f ll
Paleozoic
“Age of
Invertebrates”
443 Silurian First land plants appear and land animals follow
490 Ordovician
-First animals with bones appear
-Dominant animals: marine invertebrates including corals
and trilobites
and trilobites
-Explosion of life
-All existing phyla came into being here
540 Cambrian
g p y g
-Life forms in warm seas as oxygen levels rose enough to
support life
-Dominant animals: trilobites and brachiopods
4600
Precambrian
(Hadean Archean and Proterozoic Ages)
No life possible as the Earth initially forms 4.6 billion years
ago.
Simple, single-celled forms of life appear 3.8 billion years
ago. They will become more complex and successful over
(Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic Ages)
g y p
the next 3 billion years: Prokaryotes then Eukaryotes
Cyanobacteria begins producing free oxygen
(photosynthesis)
23.
24. “Humans”
Most recent
“Ice Age”
Major Mass
Humans
arrive
Age of
Major Mass
Extinction
Major Mass
Extinction
g
Dinosaurs
Age of Coal
Formation
Extinction
Age of Fishes
Th G l i Ti S l
Th G l i Ti S l
First multi-
celled
The Geologic Time Scale
The Geologic Time Scale
Origin of the Earth
4.55 Billion years
celled
organisms
25. Capitalisation
Geological and Cultural Time
>Names of geological eons, eras, periods, and cultural periods are
capitalized (but not the words, eon, era, and period).
Phanerozoic eon
Mesozoic era = Mesozoic Era x
Jurassic period
The Neolithic period
The Neolithic period
The Stone age
g
Similarly, pre- Jurassic or post- Jurassic, but Precambrian
26. Eons:
Precambrian: Earliest span of time
Phanerozoic: Everything since
y g
Eras:
Paleozoic
Periods:
C b
Paleozoic
Mesozoic
Cenozoic
Cambrian
Ordovician
Silurian
D i
Paleozoic Devonian
Carboniferous
(Missipp. & Pennsylvanian)
P i
Epochs:
Paleozoic
“Age of
Invertebrates”
Permian
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
poc s:
Paleocene
Eocene
Oligocene
Mesozoic
“Age of Reptiles”
Cretaceous
Paleogene
Neogene
Quaternary
g
Miocene
Pliocene
g p
Cenozoic
“Age of
Quaternary
Pleistocene
Holocene
W li i i th Ph i E C i E Q t
g
Mammals”
We are living in the Phanerozoic Eon, Cenozoic Era, Quaternary
Period, Holocene Epoch……..BUT
27. The Earth Through Time
Standard 8-2.5: Illustrate the vast diversity of life that has been present on Earth over time by using the geologic time scale.
Standard 8 2.5: Illustrate the vast diversity of life that has been present on Earth over time by using the geologic time scale.
No life possible as the Earth initially forms 4.6
The Proterozoic:
billion years ago.
Simple, single-celled forms of life appear 3.8
billion years ago, becoming more complex and
successful over the next 3 billion years:
Prokaryotes then Eukaryotes
Cyanobacteria begins producing free oxygen
(photosynthesis)
Land masses gather to make up a continent
called “Rodinia”
Cambrian:
Explosion of life
Explosion of life
All existing phyla come into being at this time
Life forms in warm seas as oxygen levels rise
enough to support life
Dominant animals: Marine invertebrates
Dominant animals: Marine invertebrates
(trilobites and brachiopods)
Supercontinent Gondwana forms near the South
Pole (note position of present-day Florida)
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002 27
19
Table of Contents
28. Ordovician:
The 1st animals with bones appear, though
dominant animals are still trilobites brachiopods
dominant animals are still trilobites, brachiopods
and corals
The beginning of the construction of South
Carolina
A very cold time in Earth’s history: there was a
great extinction due to ice caps in present-day
Africa
G d l
Four main continents: Gondwana, Baltica,
Siberia and Laurentia
Silurian:
First land plants appear and land animals follow
Laurentia collides with Baltica and closes
Iapetus Sea.
Coral reefs expand and land plants begin to
Coral reefs expand and land plants begin to
colonize barren land.
First millipede fossils and sea scorpions
(Euryptides) found in this period
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher
Scotese and are under copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002 28
20
Table of Contents
29. Devonian (Age of the Fish)
Pre-Pangea forms. Dominant animal:
fish
Oceans still freshwater and fish
migrate from southern hemisphere to
North America
North America.
Present-day Arctic Canada was at the
equator and hardwoods began to grow.
Amphibians, evergreens and ferns
appear
Mississippian:
appear
The Acadian Orogeny, leading to S.C.
metamorphism
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
i h f C S
Mississippian:
First seed plants appear
Much of North America is
covered by shallow seas and sea
life flourishes (bryoza brachipods
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002
life flourishes (bryoza, brachipods,
blastoids)
Pennsylvanian:
Pennsylvanian:
Modern North America begins
to form
Ice covers the southern
h i h d l
hemisphere and coal swamps
formed along equator.
Lizards and winged insects first
appear. 29
21
Table of Contents
30. Permian:
Last period of the Paleozoic
p
Pangea forms. Reptiles spread
across continents.
The Appalachians rise
pp
90% of Earth’s species become
extinct due to volcanism in Siberia.
This marks the end of trilobites,
ammonoids blastoids and most
ammonoids, blastoids, and most
fish.
Triassic:
First dinosaurs appear
First mammals small rodents appear
First mammals- small rodents appear
Life and fauna re-diversify
Rocky Mountains form.
First turtle fossil from this period
Pangea breaks apart
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002
22
Table of Contents
31. Jurassic:
Pangea still breaking apart
Pangea still breaking apart
Dinosaurs flourish “Golden age of
dinosaurs”
First birds appear
First birds appear
North America continues to rotate away
from Africa
Cretaceous:
T-Rex develops
First snakes and primates appear
Deciduous trees and grasses
common
fl l
First flowering plants
Mass extinction marks the end of
the Mesozoic Era, with the demise
of dinoaurs and 25% of all marine
of dinoaurs and 25% of all marine
life.
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under copyright of
C.R. Scotese, 2002
31
Table of Contents
32. Tertiary:
First horses appear and tropical
First horses appear and tropical
plants dominate (Paleocene)
Grasses spread and whales, rhinos,
elephants and other large mammals
develop. Sea level rises and
limestone deposits form in S.C.
(Eocene)
Dogs cats and apes appear
Dogs, cats, and apes appear
(Oligocene)
Horses, mastadons, camels, and
tigers roam free in S.C. (Miocene)
Hominids develop and the Grand
Canyon forms (Pliocene)
Quaternary:
Modern humans develop and ice
sheets are predominant- Ice age
sheets are predominant Ice age
(Pleistocene)
Holocene Humans flourish
(Holocene)
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002
32
Table of Contents
33. Eons
Eons
These are the longest periods of time within the
These are the longest periods of time within the
history of the Earth, which are now commonly
di id d i h h h
divided into three eons: the Archaean Eon up to
2.5 Ga, the Proterozoic Eon from 2.5 Ga to 542
Ma (together these constitute the Precambrian),
and the Phanerozoic Eon from 542Ma up to the
and the Phanerozoic Eon from 542Ma up to the
present.
34. Eras
Eras are the three time divisions of the
Phanerozoic: the Palaeozoic Era up to 251 Ma the
Phanerozoic: the Palaeozoic Era up to 251 Ma, the
Mesozoic Era from then until 65.5Ma and finally
the Cenozoic Era up to the present
the Cenozoic Era up to the present.
Precambrian eras have also been defined, for
example dividing the Proterozoic into the
p g
Palaeoproterozoic, the Mesoproterozoic and the
Neoproterozoic.
Neoproterozoic.
35. P i d /S t
Periods/Systems
The basic unit of geological time is the period and
these are the most commonly used terms when
y
referring to Earth history. The Mesozoic Era, for
example is divided into three periods the Triassic
example, is divided into three periods, the Triassic
Period, the Jurassic Period and the Cretaceous
P i d Th t t i d f th k
Period. The term system is used for the rocks
deposited in this time, e.g. the Jurassic System.
37. Ages/Stages
The smallest commonly used divisions of geological time are ages, and the
h i hi i l i h Th i ll f illi i
chronostratigraphic equivalent is the stage. They are typically a few million years in
duration. For example, the Oligocene Epoch is divided into the Rupelian and Chattian Ages
(the Rupelian and Chattian Stages of the Oligocene Series of rocks). Chrons are short
periods of time that are sometimes determined from palaeomagnetic information but these
periods of time that are sometimes determined from palaeomagnetic information, but these
units do not have widespread usage outside of magnetostratigraphy (21.4). The Quaternary
can be divided into short time units of only thousands to tens of thousands of years using
a range of techniques available for dating the recent past such as marine isotope stages
a range of techniques available for dating the recent past, such as marine isotope stages
(21.5).
40. Geologic Time Highlights of Biological Evolution
About 4.5 billion
years ago
Formation of Earth within the Solar System
About 4 billion
years ago
Evidence of earliest cell based life of Earth
(prokaryotes)...?
years ago (prokaryotes)...?
About 3 billion Evidence of photosynthesis and first eukaryotic cells
bl f b d i i
years ago capable of oxygen based respiration
41. Geologic Time Highlights of Biological Evolution
Worldwide deposition of banded iron formations
About 3.0 to 1.8
billion years ago
Worldwide deposition of banded iron formations
fundamental to the gradual conversion of Earth atmosphere
from CO2 to free oxygen, allowing development of an
billion years ago
ozone layer to protect earth from deadly solar ultraviolet
radiation
About 1.8 billion
years ago
Sexual reproduction fully established in eukaryotes
About 1 billion
li id f l i ll l i ( )
About 1 billion
years ago
Earliest evidence of multi-cellular organisms (metazoans).
42. Geologic Time Highlights of Biological Evolution
CAMBRIAN
Beginning of the Cambrian Period and "radiation of
species" in part, because many organisms began to develop
h d k l l i l f d f i d f i l
Beginning about
570 million years
ago
hard skeletal material as part of defensive and functional
body plans. Hard body parts are (shells and exoskeletons)
were selectively preserved (and therefore easier to find as
ago were selectively preserved (and therefore easier to find as
fossils) in Cambrian and younger sedimentary rocks.
43. Geologic
Time
Highlights of Biological Evolution
Cambrian
Period
(542-488my)
*By the end of the Cambrian Period several groups of invertebrates were well
established in shallow marine environments, perhaps most notably were trilobites,
brachiopods, crinoids, bryozoans, sponges, and gastropods are locally common
(542 488my)
fossils preserved in Cambrian sedimentary rocks.
Ordovician
Trilobites no longer dominated the fossil record, but other life forms began to dominate the
shallow marine environment. Corals (unrelated to modern varieties), crinoids, cephalopods,
Period
(488-443my)
( ) p p
brachiopods, bryozoans and other fossils with calcareous skeletons dominate the fossil record
(because of their ability to survived burial and fossilization processes). Rare early examples
of fish and land plants have been discovered in Ordovician age sedimentary rocks.
Silurian
Period
Few rocks of Silurian age are preserved in North America's fossil record (New York and
Michigan are notable
exceptions). The fossil record shows that the Silurian world was dominated by marine
i t b t b t th fi t fi hlik
(443-416my)
invertebrates, but the first fishlike
chordates appear. Land plants began to flourish, allowing the first animals to emerge onto dry
land (including insects and scorpions).
O l d f i l l d d d d h l d ll i h
Devonian
Period
On land, frees poring vascular plants adapted and spread across the landscape, allowing the
first forests to cover the continents. By the middle of the Devonian several groups of plants
had evolved leaves and true roots, and by the end of the period the first seed bearing plants
appeared. Terrestrial arthropods began to flourish. In the marine world, early rayfinned,
Period
(416-359my)
appeared. Terrestrial arthropods began to flourish. In the marine world, early rayfinned,
Lobefinned bony fish, and sharks appear in the fossil record. The first ammonoid mollusks
appeared. Holdover families of marine invertebrates from earlier times persisted, including
trilobites, brachiopods, cephalopods, and reefforming corals remained common.
44. Geologic
Time
Highlights of Biological Evolution
Carbo
(3
In this period great quantities of coal are preserved in rocks of these time.
Amphibians became the dominant land vertebrates. Descendent from
oniferous
359-299m
Amphibians became the dominant land vertebrates. Descendent from
amphibian ancestors, reptiles evolved and became the first terrestrial
vertebrates. With the abundance of vegetation on land, arthropods flourish,
including species of insects that are much larger than any found on Earth
s
Period
my)
including species of insects that are much larger than any found on Earth
today. Toward the end of the Carboniferous, glaciation cycles caused
repetitious rise and fall in sea levels
The last period of the Paleozoic Era was a time of colossal changes. All the
continents of the world combined to form the supercontinent of Pangaea. In
Permia
(299-2
p g
the fossil record, a group of tetrapods (four legged animals with
backbones) called amniotes appeared that have a terrestrially adapted eggs.
All modern land species are descendant from a common ancestral group of
an
Period
251my)
All modern land species are descendant from a common ancestral group of
amniotes. During the Permian, the expansive forests that existed during the
Carboniferous disappeared, and vast desert regions covered the continental
interior Reptiles adapted and flourished in the more arid environment The
interior. Reptiles adapted and flourished in the more arid environment. The
end of the Permian Period (and Paleozoic Era) is marked by the greatest
mass extinction in Earth history.
46. co o y e e ed o s e ge o ep es.
Following the great extinction event at the end of the Permian Period, life on
Earth gradually reestablished itself both on land and in the oceans
T i i
Earth gradually reestablished itself both on land and in the oceans.
On land, reptilian therapsids and archosaurs became the dominant
vertebrates.
N l d i h iddl l T i i P i d i l di h fi
Triassic
Period
(251-
New groups evolved in the middle to late Triassic Period including the first
dinosaurs, mammals, and flying vertebrates (pterosaurs) but these families
did not flourish until another global extinction event at the close of Triassic
ti
(251
199my)
time.
During the middle Triassic, the supercontinent of Pangaea began to rift apart
into separate landmasses, Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south.
With the breakup of Pangaea, terrestrial climates gradually change from
mostly hot and dry to more humid condition. Another mass extinction in the
fossil record marks the end of the Triassic Period.
The cause of the mass extinction at the end of Triassic is still unclear, but
evidence shows that it was rapid and massive amounts of volcanism was
taking place with the ongoing breakup of Pangaea.
Jurassic
Period
(199 145 )
g p g g p g
With other life forms out of the way, dinosaurs adapted and diversified into a
wide variety of groups.
Although pterosaurs were the dominant flying vertebrates during the Jurassic
(199-145my) Periods, the first birds appeared having evolved from a branch of theropod
dinosaurs.
Small mammals appear in the fossil record during the Jurassic, but remained
47. Mesozoic Era—the era between the Paleozoic and Cenozoic eras,
comprising the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods; commonly
f d h "A f R il "
referred to as the "Age of Reptiles."
During the Cretaceous Period the Earth was relatively warm compared to the
g y p
world today.
There were no glaciers on the planet and sea level was as much as 200 feet
higher that today.
C
higher that today.
The dinosaurs that survived into the Cretaceous Period diversified and evolved
into many unusual forms.
L i til ll d M th d i t i i th
Cretaceous
Period
(145-
Large marine reptiles called Mosasaurs were the dominant organism in the
ocean.
Cretaceous gets its name for "Creta"—latin for the word chalk. The shallow
(
65my)
warm seas of the Cretaceous Period were locations where the calcareous
skeletal remains of planktonic organisms called coccoliths accumulated,
forming great accumulations of chalk.
In many places in the equatorial realm oyster like organism called rudists form
great reefs.
Flowering plants also first appear in the fossil record, birds and mammals
g p pp ,
existed in Cretaceous time but were insignificant compared to flying nonavian
pterosaurs
48. Review the Cretaceous
Review the Cretaceous-
-Tertiary boundary
Tertiary boundary
The Cretaceous – Tertiary boundary is one of the most investigated mass extinction event. It
is has been well investigated partly because it is the youngest of the large extinctions that
t t ll h d th t f lif th
totally changed the nature of life on earth.
The "K/T event" is believe to have been caused by a massive asteroid impact. What is
known is that all species of dinosaurs on land, and marine reptiles and ammonites in the
p , p
marine realm vanished.
The asteroid impact and following shock waves, monstrous tsunamis, firestorms, ash and
gas clouds and following global winter like condition caused ecosystem collapse in both
gas clouds, and following global winter like condition caused ecosystem collapse in both
the food web of the oceans and on land.
All species that exist today are descendent of the few species that survived the global
catastrophe... small mammals, birds, invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians, fish and other
surviving groups had evolutionary advantages that allowed them to survive. With the
dinosaurs, pterosaurs, large swimming reptiles and other large animals of the Cretaceous
Period out of the way, the surviving species proliferated and moved into empty and new
niches that allowed them to prosper and diversify.
49. Cenozoic Era - Known as the "Age of Mammals"
Quate
Holocene
End of the ice age to the present. Includes a 400 footrise in sea level
and the rise of human civilizations
ernary
(
my)
Pleistocene
Time period of major ice ages where continental glacier advance and
retreated, covering much of northern North America and Europe during
cold periods. Modern human species appears in the fossil record. Many
(2.5
–
Pleistocene cold periods. Modern human species appears in the fossil record. Many
species of large land mammals went extinct at the end of the
Pleistocene Epoch.
Ne
Global climates cooled and became dryer with the onset of glaciation
cycles. Most families of animals and plants found in the world had
ancestral forms during the Pliocene including humans. Greenland's ice
eogene
(2
Pliocene
sheet starts to form. South America and North America became linked
at the Isthmus of Panama, allowing the cross migration of many
species between continents; but also shutting off the migration of
i f h A l i h P ifi Th ki d f
23-2.5
m
species from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans. The same kind of
interactions took place when Africa collided with Europe.
Animals and plants of the Miocene Epoch are approaching modern life
my)
Miocene
forms in diversity. Earth was warmer with expanded tropical realms
compared to the modern world. The Himalayan Mountains begin to
rise as the Indian continental landmass began to collide with Asia.
50. Cenozoic Era - Known as the "Age of Mammals"
The Oligocene was a time of transition when older life forms were replace
with life forms that dominate the world today. The warmer, more tropical
Oligocene
w e o s do e e wo d od y. T e w e , o e op c
environments of the Eocene Epoch gave way to dryer landscapes
dominated by grasslands, whereas broadleaf forests became more
restricted to the equatorial realm.
Paleog
q
"Modern" forms of mammals appear and diversify in the fossil record
gene
(65
Eocene
pp y
during the Eocene Epoch. The Eocene was a warm period with an
expanded tropical realm. The end of the Eocene period is marked by a
mass extinction that may have involved asteroid collisions in Siberia and in
-23
my)
y
the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay.
Paleocene
The mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period left many of the
niches filled by dinosaurs and large swimming empty. Mammals with
placental type live birth appear. Shallow seas of the Cretaceous period
p p pp p
withdrew or were gradually replaced by lakes. In North America, the
Rocky Mountains began to rise.
51. Stratigraphic terminology
Stratigraphic terminology –
– deals with the
deals with the
unit
unit-
-term used in stratigraphic
term used in stratigraphic
unit
unit term used in stratigraphic
term used in stratigraphic
classification, such as formation, stage,
classification, such as formation, stage,
biozone. It can be either formal or
biozone. It can be either formal or
informal.
informal.
informal.
informal.
►
► Formal:
Formal: are defined and named according
are defined and named according
bli h d i ll d
bli h d i ll d
to an established or conventionally agreed
to an established or conventionally agreed
scheme of classification. e.g.. The
scheme of classification. e.g.. The
Vanivilas
Vanivilas F
Formation, the Cretaceous
ormation, the Cretaceous
S
System. The initial letter of a named formal
ystem. The initial letter of a named formal
unit term is capitalized.
unit term is capitalized.
►
► Informal:
Informal: are only as ordinary nouns
are only as ordinary nouns
without the necessarily being named and
without the necessarily being named and
without it being a part of a specific scheme
without it being a part of a specific scheme
without it being a part of a specific scheme
without it being a part of a specific scheme
of stratigraphic classification. e.g.
of stratigraphic classification. e.g.
Ingaldhal
Ingaldhal f
formation, oyster
ormation, oyster z
zone. The
one. The
initial letter of an informal unit
initial letter of an informal unit term is
term is
initial letter of an informal unit
initial letter of an informal unit-
-term is
term is
printed in lower case.
printed in lower case.