Stool/feces is the end product of digestive system of the body. Following digestion and absorption of the essential food ingredients in the stomach and intestine, the undigested food and unabsorbed secretions of stomach, liver, pancreas and intestine appear in stool.
Stool/feces is the end product of digestive system of the body. Following digestion and absorption of the essential food ingredients in the stomach and intestine, the undigested food and unabsorbed secretions of stomach, liver, pancreas and intestine appear in stool.
CONCENTRATIONS TECHNIQUES IN PARASITOLOGY PRESENTATION.pptxShreyayadav91
INTRODUCTION
Concentration procedure separate parasites from fecal debris and increase the chances of detecting parasitic organisms when these are in small numbers.
If number of organisms in stool specimen is low, examination of a direct wet mount may not detect parasites.
Thus, whenever possible, the stool should be concentrated.
Advantages
Maximizes the numbers of organisms detected which may be too scanty to be seen by direct microscopy alone. Worm eggs, larvae, and protozoan cysts may be recovered.
Disadvantages
Destroys trophozoite stages. Most concentration methods destroy trophozoites stages.
Concentration techniques can be classified as the floatation or sedimentation methods.
Floatation technique
Here solutions with higher specific gravity than the organisms to be floated so that the organisms rise to the top and debris sink to the bottom.
Principle
This technique involves suspending the specimen in a medium of greater density than that of the helminthic eggs and protozoan cysts.
Eggs and cysts float to the top and are collected by placing a glass slides on the surface of the meniscus at the top of the tube.
Floatation Methods includes:
Saturated salt solution technique
Zinc sulfate centrifugal floatation
Sugar floatation technique
Saturated salt solution technique
Procedure:
About half tea spoon (about 4 gm) of fresh stool or preserved stool in a flat bottomed container with 20 ml capacity.
Now, few drops of saturated salt solution (specific gravity 1.20) is added and stirred to make a fine emulsion.
More salt solution is added with stirring throughout to fill the container up to the brim, until a convex meniscus is formed.
A glass slide (3”*2”) is carefully laid on the top of the container so that the center is in contact with the fluid.
This preparation is allowed to stand for 20 minutes after which the glass slide is quickly lifted and examined under microscope after putting coverslip.
Zinc sulfate centrifugal floatation
Procedure
Make a fine suspension of about 1 g of feces in 10 m L of water and strain through gauze to remove coarse particles.
Collect the liquid in a small test tube and centrifuge for 1 minute at 2,500 revolutions per minute. Pour off the supernatant, add water, resuspend, and centrifuge in the same manner, repeating the process, till the supernatant is clear.
Pour off the clear supernatant, add a small quantity of zinc sulfate solution (specific gravity 1.18- 1.2) and resuspend the sediment well.
Add zinc sulfate solution to a little below the brim and centrifuge at 2,500 revolution per minute for 1 minute.
Take samples care fully from the surface, using a wire loop, transfer to slide and examine under the microscope. A drop of dilute iodine helps to bring out the protozoan cysts in a better way.
This technique is useful for protozoan cysts and eggs of nematodes and small tapeworms, but it does not detect unfertilized roundworm eggs, nematode larvae, and eggs of most trematodes and large tapeworms.
stool examination in different disease physical ,chemical and microscopic examination , concentration technique , sedimentation and flotation techniques
CONCENTRATIONS TECHNIQUES IN PARASITOLOGY PRESENTATION.pptxShreyayadav91
INTRODUCTION
Concentration procedure separate parasites from fecal debris and increase the chances of detecting parasitic organisms when these are in small numbers.
If number of organisms in stool specimen is low, examination of a direct wet mount may not detect parasites.
Thus, whenever possible, the stool should be concentrated.
Advantages
Maximizes the numbers of organisms detected which may be too scanty to be seen by direct microscopy alone. Worm eggs, larvae, and protozoan cysts may be recovered.
Disadvantages
Destroys trophozoite stages. Most concentration methods destroy trophozoites stages.
Concentration techniques can be classified as the floatation or sedimentation methods.
Floatation technique
Here solutions with higher specific gravity than the organisms to be floated so that the organisms rise to the top and debris sink to the bottom.
Principle
This technique involves suspending the specimen in a medium of greater density than that of the helminthic eggs and protozoan cysts.
Eggs and cysts float to the top and are collected by placing a glass slides on the surface of the meniscus at the top of the tube.
Floatation Methods includes:
Saturated salt solution technique
Zinc sulfate centrifugal floatation
Sugar floatation technique
Saturated salt solution technique
Procedure:
About half tea spoon (about 4 gm) of fresh stool or preserved stool in a flat bottomed container with 20 ml capacity.
Now, few drops of saturated salt solution (specific gravity 1.20) is added and stirred to make a fine emulsion.
More salt solution is added with stirring throughout to fill the container up to the brim, until a convex meniscus is formed.
A glass slide (3”*2”) is carefully laid on the top of the container so that the center is in contact with the fluid.
This preparation is allowed to stand for 20 minutes after which the glass slide is quickly lifted and examined under microscope after putting coverslip.
Zinc sulfate centrifugal floatation
Procedure
Make a fine suspension of about 1 g of feces in 10 m L of water and strain through gauze to remove coarse particles.
Collect the liquid in a small test tube and centrifuge for 1 minute at 2,500 revolutions per minute. Pour off the supernatant, add water, resuspend, and centrifuge in the same manner, repeating the process, till the supernatant is clear.
Pour off the clear supernatant, add a small quantity of zinc sulfate solution (specific gravity 1.18- 1.2) and resuspend the sediment well.
Add zinc sulfate solution to a little below the brim and centrifuge at 2,500 revolution per minute for 1 minute.
Take samples care fully from the surface, using a wire loop, transfer to slide and examine under the microscope. A drop of dilute iodine helps to bring out the protozoan cysts in a better way.
This technique is useful for protozoan cysts and eggs of nematodes and small tapeworms, but it does not detect unfertilized roundworm eggs, nematode larvae, and eggs of most trematodes and large tapeworms.
stool examination in different disease physical ,chemical and microscopic examination , concentration technique , sedimentation and flotation techniques
Laboratory and diagnostic examination(urine analysis)anjalatchi
laboratory investigation like urine and stool test like meaning, type of test, interpretation nurses role in laboratory investigation collectin and transportation etc.
Constipation is generally defined as infrequent and/or unsatisfactory defecation fewer than 3 times per week.
Patients may define constipation as passing hard stools or straining, incomplete or painful defecation. It's a symptom NOT a disease.
Constipation has many causes and may be a sign of undiagnosed disease.
osmotic and secretory diarrhea. acute and chronic diarrhea. small bowel and large bowel diarrhea. amoebic and bacillary dysentery. investigation. treatment.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
3. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
• Average healthy adults defecate from three times
a day to three time a week.
• Common pattern is once a day .
• The stool tends to be soft and bulky on a diet
high in vegetables and small and dry on a diet
high in meat.
• Two thirds of the stool weight is attributable to its
water content ,The normal brown color is of still
undetermined origin.
• The odour results from indole and skatole
produced by bacteria from tryptophan.
4. FECES ARE COMPOSED OF:-
1. Waste residue of indigestible material in food
2. Bile (pigments and salts).
3. Intestinal secretion ,including mucous.
4. Leucocytes that migrate from the blood stream
5. Shed epithelial cells
6. Large numbers of bacteria that make up to one
third of total solids
7. Inorganic material (10-20%) that is chiefly
calcium and phosphate
8. Digested food (present in very small quantities)
5. TYPE OF FECES
Bristol Stool Scale is a medical aid designed to classify
the form of human feces into seven categories.
6. STOOL COLLECTION
Universal precaution :-
• Collect stool in a dry ,clean container
• Faces should be urine free when collected.
and transfer to another container by a
the laboratory immediatetly after collection.
• Worm stool are best for detecting ova and
refrigerate for ova and parasites.
7. Continue:-
• Some coliform bacilli produce antibiotics
substances that destroy enteric pathogens.
• A diarrhoeal stool will usually give good
results
• A freshly passed stool is the specimen of
choice
• Preferably stool specimens should be collect
before antibiotics therapy is initiated and as
early in the course of disease as possible
8. Continue:-
• Only a small amount of stool is a needed the
size of walnut . If mucous and blood are
present ,they should be indicated in part of
the specimen to be examined.
• Do not use a stool that has been passed into
the toilet bowl or that has been contaminated
with barium or other x-ray
• Label all stool specimen with patients name,
date and reason for examination testing.
9. INTERFERING FACTORS
• Meat interferes with some tests and should
usually be omitted from the diet for 3 day
before a test for blood
• Stool specimen from patients receiving
barium, bismuth, oil, or antibiotics are not
satisfactory
• Bismuth from paper towels and toilet tissues
interferes with tests.
10. NORMAL VALUES IN STOOL ANALYSIS
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION NORMAL
Colour brown
odour Varies with pH stool and
depend upon bacterial
fermentation and
putrefaction
Consistency Plastic ,not unusual to see
seeds and veg. skin ,soft and
bulky in a high veg. diet ,
small and dry in a high meat
diet
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
11. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION NORMAL
Size and shape Formed
Gross blood Absent
Mucous, Pus and Parasites Absent
Fat Colourless ,neutral fat and
fatty acid crystals and soaps
Undigested None to small amount food,
meat fibers, strach,trypsin
Eggs and Sags Absent
Yeasts and Leucocytes Absent
12. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION NORMAL
pH Neutral to weakly alkaline
Adult= 7.0-7.5
New born= 5.0-7.0
Bottle fed infant= neutral to
slightly alkaline pH of=7.0-8.0
Breast fed infant=Slightly
acidic
13. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION NORMAL
Occult blood Negative
Urobilinogen 50-300mg/24hrs
Porphyrins Coproporphyrins<200µg/24hrs
Protoporphyrins,1500µg/24hrs
Uroporphyrin<100µg/24hrs
Nitrogen 1-2 gm/24 hrs
Bile Negative in adult,positive in
childeren
Trypsin Positive in small amount in
adult, in greater amount in
normal children
14. EXAMINATION BY INSPECTION
• A simple inspection of feces may lead to a
diagnosis of parasitic infection, obstructive
jaundice, diarrhoea, malabsorption,
rectosigmoidal obstruction ,dysentry or
ulccerative colitis or gastrointestinal tract
bleeding
TYPE OF STOOL LIKELY REASON
Watery stool Diarrhoea
Large amount of mushy, foul
smelling, gray stool that float
in water
Steatorrhoea
15. TYPE OF STOOL LIKELY REASON
Little firm ,spherical masses Constipation (irritable colon
syndrome, overuse of laxative)
Narrow ribbon like stool Spastic bowel or narrowing or
stricture
Clay Coloured Obstructive jaundice, or
present of barium sulfate
Reddish stool Blood from lower GIT, beets
consumption or BSP use
Black ,tarry stool Bleeding for upper GIT , iron,
bismuth or charcoal,
consumption
16. TYPE OF STOOL LIKELY REASON
Green stool Ingestion of spinach etc,
calomel, presence of biliverdin,
seen in patients taking
antibiotic orally
17. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
COVERSLIP PREPARATION FOR MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION:-
Normal saline
one drop
Iodine
solution one
drop
1.On a clean and dry slide add one drop each of normal
saline and iodine solution
18. 2. By using an applicator stick take a small portion
•From formed sample:-portion from well inside and surface
•From liquid stool containing mucus. Take blood stained
mucus and other small portion
19. 3. Mix the sample with the drop of sodium chloride on the
Slide .Mix the sample with iodine solution drop
20. 4.Place a coverslip over each drop (apply coverslips as
Shown to avoid the formation of air bubbles)
22. 6. Examine the preparation under the microscopic
•First under – low power objective and afterwards
With high power objective
23. CONCENTRATION METHOD OF MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Method:- When stools are mixed with a saturated solution of
sodium chloride the ova float to surface.
This method is recommended for ova of round worm
hookworm, whipworm, hymnolopis nana, Tenia etc
The method is not suittable for ova of schistosomes
and Flukes and protozoa cysts
24. 1. Place small portion of stool in a penicillin bottle .
Add saturated sodium chloride (half bottle)
2. Mix by using applicator stick and add a saturated sodium
chloride and fill the bottle completely
25. 3. Place a coverslip on the bottle mouth
4. Remove the coverslip with care , a drop of liquid should
On it. Place it on the glass slide
27. MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
NO. DETECTION
OF
NORMAL
FINDING
ABNORMAL
FINDING
PATHOLOG.CONDI
TION
DIAGRAM
1 CELLS:-
Pus cells
Present , few Present ,
many
Bacillary dysentry ,
ulcerative colitis
Epithelial cells -do- -do- Inflammation of
the bowel
macrophages Occasional many Bacillary dysentry,
ulcerative colitis
Erythrocytes Absent Present Lesion is in the
colon , rectum or
anus, the clump in
amoebiasis
28. NO. DETECTION OF NORMAL
FINDING
ABNORM
AL
FINDING
PATHOLOG.CON
DITION
DIAGRAM
2 Crystals:-
Triple phosphate
and calcium oxalate
Present due to
indigestion of
certain food I,e.
spinach, berries,
tomato etyc
- -
Charcot-leyden
crystals
Absent Present ulcerative
colitis
amoebiasis
Haematoidin
crystals
Absent Present Intestinal
haemorrhage
3 Vegetable matter:-
Vegetable cells,
spirals, fibers, hairs
etc
Present in
residuel
constituent
- -
29. NO. DETECTION OF NORMAL FINDING ABNORMAL
FINDING
PATHOLOG.
CONDITIO
N
DIAGRAM
4 Animal matter:-
Connective tissue,
musle fibers and
elastic tissue
Present in residuel
constituent or
undigested fibers -
-
-
5 Undigested
ingredients:-
starch
Absent Present in
high
proportion
Indigestion
Fat Absent Present in
high
proportion
Indigestion
6 Other Findings:-
Yests
Present especialy
blastocystis
hominis
- -
Bacteria Constitute about
one third of the
weight of dried
faces
- -
30. INTESTINAL PROTOZOA
ORGANIUM TYPE DIAGRAM
Entamoeba histolytica cyst Pathogenic
Entamoeba coli cyst Non pathogenic
Giardia lamblia cyst Pathogenic
34. References
1. Godkar Praful B., Godar Darshan P, Text book
of medical laboratory technology, Parasitology
and faeces Examination 42, Second ed,
Mumbai: Balwani publishing house, 2003.