A Biased Review of Sociophysics
Dietrich Stauffer
J Stat Phys (2013) 151:9–20
http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/931/art%253A10.1007%252Fs10955-012-0604-9.pdf?auth66=1383821620_e01520b72a71707d0f86e2da5620d7fb&ext=.pdf
Collaboration - or How to Write Together Without Killing Each Other - We present guidelines on how to write together and make it fun instead of torture.
Critique Partners/Writing Groups - Why you should consider sharing your work with a partner or group. What to look for, what to avoid and how to find one, as well as suggestions for group processes are covered.
Usability in Wonderland: 5 Things You Should Never Do in VRNicole Lazzaro
To construct a magical trip to wonderland, game developers must relearn how to move the camera, navigate the world, use a HUD, create strong emotions, and even play audio. Based on 2 years of VR research on games such as 'Job Simulator', 'Defense Grid', 'EVE Valkyrie', plus 25 years of game research and developing their own VR game, 'Follow the White Rabbit', they take a deep dive into player psychology, usability, and the neuropsychology of emotion. Join them to explore the 5 most challenging usability obstacles game developers (and film makers) face making innovative and emotionally compelling VR games.
Takeaway
VR designers and developers wanting to create deeply compelling innovative VR experiences and avoid shipping a barfatorium. Attendees will be able to identify and overcome the 5 most challenging obstacles to designing compelling VR experiences with prioritized, practical, and concrete design patterns for better VR games.
Review of International Studies (2007), 33, 3–24 Copyright B.docxmichael591
Review of International Studies (2007), 33, 3–24 Copyright � British International Studies Association
doi:10.1017/S0260210507007371
Introduction
Still critical after all these years? The past,
present and future of Critical Theory in
International Relations
NICHOLAS RENGGER AND BEN THIRKELL-WHITE*
Twenty-five years ago, theoretical reflection on International Relations (IR) was
dominated by three broad discourses. In the United States the behavioural revolution
of the 1950s and 1960s had helped to create a field that was heavily influenced by
various assumptions allegedly derived from the natural sciences. Of course, variety
existed within the behaviourist camp. Some preferred the heavily quantitative
approach that had become especially influential in the 1960s, while others were
exploring the burgeoning literature of rational and public choice, derived from the
game theoretic approaches pioneered at the RAND corporation. Perhaps the most
influential theoretical voice of the late 1970s, Kenneth Waltz, chose neither; instead he
developed his Theory of International Politics around an austere conception of parsi-
mony and systems derived from his reading in contemporary philosophy of science.1
These positivist methods were adopted not just in the United States but also in
Europe, Asia and the UK. But in Britain a second, older approach, more influenced
by history, law and by philosophy was still widely admired. The ‘classical approach’
to international theory had yet to formally emerge into the ‘English School’ but many
of its texts had been written and it was certainly a force to be reckoned with.2
* The authors would like to thank all the contributors to this special issue, including our two referees.
We would also like to thank Kate Schick for comments on drafts and broader discussion of the
subject matter.
1 Discussions of the development and character of so-called ‘positivist’ IR are something of a drug on
the market. Many of them, of course, treat IR and political science as virtually interchangeable. For
discussions of the rise of ‘positivist’ political science, see: Bernard Crick, The American Science of
Politics (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1960). Klaus Knorr and
James Rosenau (eds.), Contending Approaches to International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1969) highlight the emergence of what might be termed ‘classical’ behaviouralist
approaches. The growing diversity of the field can be seen in K. J. Holsti, The Dividing Discipline
(London; Allen and Unwin, 1985) and the debates between positivism and its critics traced ably in
the introduction to Steve Smith, Ken Booth and Marysia Zalewski (eds.), International Theory;
Positivism, and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Waltz’s move from a
traditional to a much more scientific mode of theory is found, of course, in Theory of International
Politics (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1979).
2 The exhaustive (an.
Sociology is the study of social rules and processes that bind, and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and institutions. Dr. Rishabh Gahlot "Sociological Thinkers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-6 , October 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52248.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/sociology/52248/sociological-thinkers/dr-rishabh-gahlot
Three grand sociological theoriesWhich of the three grand so.docxjuliennehar
Three "grand" sociological theories
Which of the three "grand" sociological theories would best fit research conducted on the following topics: (Hint - check the level of analysis - whether "macro" or "micro" in Module 1 Figure 1). Please provide a brief explanation for your choice.
· Current U.S. immigration policies
· Reasons for an increase in violent crime among adult females in the U.S.
Module 1: The Individual and Society—A General Introduction
After completing this module, you should be able to:
· identify the three questions grounding the discipline of sociology
· summarize how sociologists differ from both philosophers and other social scientists in their approach to the relationship between the individual and society
· frame the question, "What is the relationship between the individual and society?" sociologically, as one of the individual's interaction and connections to larger social wholes
· identify and summarize the concepts and premises grounding sociology's three main theoretical frameworks for analyzing the connections between the individual and society
· list and illustrate the four challenges faced by traditional theory as it addresses the ways in which individuals and society are connected
· define such general concepts as groups, social structure, social interaction, culture, the social order, society, and the social system
· distinguish the defining elements of a society from the more widely known theoretical construct, the social systemModule 1: The Individual and Society—A General IntroductionTopics
IntroductionThe Distinctiveness of the Sociological PerspectiveThe Individual and Society: Three Theoretical PerspectivesFour Challenges Facing Contemporary Sociological TheoryResources for Rethinking the Relationship between the Individual and SocietyThe Individual and Society: A Preliminary Perspective
Introduction
At the dawn of the twenty-first century, few Americans imagined the events that would come to characterize a new sense of national identity and the norms that would be called upon to support it. The period from 1945 to 2000 witnessed not only an altered world map, but, among other things:
· the rise of the "baby boom generation"
· the flowering of the American civil rights movement (together with the movements that followed it)
· the rising (albeit selective) levels of educational and occupational achievement that burst open in the sixties
· Vietnam and the American peace movement
· inflation, OPEC, and the 1973 oil embargo
· new patterns of immigration
· the West's widening recognition of Holocaust horror
· inflation, globalization, and the first Gulf War
· the Internet and politics unbounded (read: impeachment, hanging chads, a downward DOW)
and early into the twenty-first century, the moments of 9-11 that without question, Americans everywhere share.
So one has to wonder: How does a society maintain itself in the face of so much change? How do international events impact individuals in their daily and ...
Collaboration - or How to Write Together Without Killing Each Other - We present guidelines on how to write together and make it fun instead of torture.
Critique Partners/Writing Groups - Why you should consider sharing your work with a partner or group. What to look for, what to avoid and how to find one, as well as suggestions for group processes are covered.
Usability in Wonderland: 5 Things You Should Never Do in VRNicole Lazzaro
To construct a magical trip to wonderland, game developers must relearn how to move the camera, navigate the world, use a HUD, create strong emotions, and even play audio. Based on 2 years of VR research on games such as 'Job Simulator', 'Defense Grid', 'EVE Valkyrie', plus 25 years of game research and developing their own VR game, 'Follow the White Rabbit', they take a deep dive into player psychology, usability, and the neuropsychology of emotion. Join them to explore the 5 most challenging usability obstacles game developers (and film makers) face making innovative and emotionally compelling VR games.
Takeaway
VR designers and developers wanting to create deeply compelling innovative VR experiences and avoid shipping a barfatorium. Attendees will be able to identify and overcome the 5 most challenging obstacles to designing compelling VR experiences with prioritized, practical, and concrete design patterns for better VR games.
Review of International Studies (2007), 33, 3–24 Copyright B.docxmichael591
Review of International Studies (2007), 33, 3–24 Copyright � British International Studies Association
doi:10.1017/S0260210507007371
Introduction
Still critical after all these years? The past,
present and future of Critical Theory in
International Relations
NICHOLAS RENGGER AND BEN THIRKELL-WHITE*
Twenty-five years ago, theoretical reflection on International Relations (IR) was
dominated by three broad discourses. In the United States the behavioural revolution
of the 1950s and 1960s had helped to create a field that was heavily influenced by
various assumptions allegedly derived from the natural sciences. Of course, variety
existed within the behaviourist camp. Some preferred the heavily quantitative
approach that had become especially influential in the 1960s, while others were
exploring the burgeoning literature of rational and public choice, derived from the
game theoretic approaches pioneered at the RAND corporation. Perhaps the most
influential theoretical voice of the late 1970s, Kenneth Waltz, chose neither; instead he
developed his Theory of International Politics around an austere conception of parsi-
mony and systems derived from his reading in contemporary philosophy of science.1
These positivist methods were adopted not just in the United States but also in
Europe, Asia and the UK. But in Britain a second, older approach, more influenced
by history, law and by philosophy was still widely admired. The ‘classical approach’
to international theory had yet to formally emerge into the ‘English School’ but many
of its texts had been written and it was certainly a force to be reckoned with.2
* The authors would like to thank all the contributors to this special issue, including our two referees.
We would also like to thank Kate Schick for comments on drafts and broader discussion of the
subject matter.
1 Discussions of the development and character of so-called ‘positivist’ IR are something of a drug on
the market. Many of them, of course, treat IR and political science as virtually interchangeable. For
discussions of the rise of ‘positivist’ political science, see: Bernard Crick, The American Science of
Politics (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1960). Klaus Knorr and
James Rosenau (eds.), Contending Approaches to International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1969) highlight the emergence of what might be termed ‘classical’ behaviouralist
approaches. The growing diversity of the field can be seen in K. J. Holsti, The Dividing Discipline
(London; Allen and Unwin, 1985) and the debates between positivism and its critics traced ably in
the introduction to Steve Smith, Ken Booth and Marysia Zalewski (eds.), International Theory;
Positivism, and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Waltz’s move from a
traditional to a much more scientific mode of theory is found, of course, in Theory of International
Politics (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1979).
2 The exhaustive (an.
Sociology is the study of social rules and processes that bind, and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and institutions. Dr. Rishabh Gahlot "Sociological Thinkers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-6 , October 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52248.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/sociology/52248/sociological-thinkers/dr-rishabh-gahlot
Three grand sociological theoriesWhich of the three grand so.docxjuliennehar
Three "grand" sociological theories
Which of the three "grand" sociological theories would best fit research conducted on the following topics: (Hint - check the level of analysis - whether "macro" or "micro" in Module 1 Figure 1). Please provide a brief explanation for your choice.
· Current U.S. immigration policies
· Reasons for an increase in violent crime among adult females in the U.S.
Module 1: The Individual and Society—A General Introduction
After completing this module, you should be able to:
· identify the three questions grounding the discipline of sociology
· summarize how sociologists differ from both philosophers and other social scientists in their approach to the relationship between the individual and society
· frame the question, "What is the relationship between the individual and society?" sociologically, as one of the individual's interaction and connections to larger social wholes
· identify and summarize the concepts and premises grounding sociology's three main theoretical frameworks for analyzing the connections between the individual and society
· list and illustrate the four challenges faced by traditional theory as it addresses the ways in which individuals and society are connected
· define such general concepts as groups, social structure, social interaction, culture, the social order, society, and the social system
· distinguish the defining elements of a society from the more widely known theoretical construct, the social systemModule 1: The Individual and Society—A General IntroductionTopics
IntroductionThe Distinctiveness of the Sociological PerspectiveThe Individual and Society: Three Theoretical PerspectivesFour Challenges Facing Contemporary Sociological TheoryResources for Rethinking the Relationship between the Individual and SocietyThe Individual and Society: A Preliminary Perspective
Introduction
At the dawn of the twenty-first century, few Americans imagined the events that would come to characterize a new sense of national identity and the norms that would be called upon to support it. The period from 1945 to 2000 witnessed not only an altered world map, but, among other things:
· the rise of the "baby boom generation"
· the flowering of the American civil rights movement (together with the movements that followed it)
· the rising (albeit selective) levels of educational and occupational achievement that burst open in the sixties
· Vietnam and the American peace movement
· inflation, OPEC, and the 1973 oil embargo
· new patterns of immigration
· the West's widening recognition of Holocaust horror
· inflation, globalization, and the first Gulf War
· the Internet and politics unbounded (read: impeachment, hanging chads, a downward DOW)
and early into the twenty-first century, the moments of 9-11 that without question, Americans everywhere share.
So one has to wonder: How does a society maintain itself in the face of so much change? How do international events impact individuals in their daily and ...
The Sociological Perspective
What is sociology?
Subject Matter of Sociology
Sociology and the Other Sciences
The Historical Development of Sociology
Sexual discrimination in Early Sociology
Sociology in North America
Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
Applied Sociology and Clinical Sociology
For sociology papers, visit cutewriters.com
La rebeldía es un grito de la inteligencia y la voluntad que dice, NO ME DA LA GANA de decirle que sí a esta actual situación.
Sixtilo Dalmau
02 de noviembre de 2013
Carta al presidente de la republica para repotenciar el programa nuclear (fra...Francisco Vidarte
Carta al Presidente de la Republica para Repotenciar el Programa Nuclear
De: Francisco Vidarte Garcia
Presidente de la Asociacion de Profesionales Nucleares
Lima, 2 de marzo de 2007
"Irradiación Nuclear para la Preservación de Productos de Agroexportación"
por: Fís. Francisco Vidarte, fvidarte@hotmail.com
VI Convención Nacional de AgroExportación.
Universidad Nacional Agraria. La Molina, 3 de mayo de 2007
Generative AI Deep Dive: Advancing from Proof of Concept to ProductionAggregage
Join Maher Hanafi, VP of Engineering at Betterworks, in this new session where he'll share a practical framework to transform Gen AI prototypes into impactful products! He'll delve into the complexities of data collection and management, model selection and optimization, and ensuring security, scalability, and responsible use.
Elevating Tactical DDD Patterns Through Object CalisthenicsDorra BARTAGUIZ
After immersing yourself in the blue book and its red counterpart, attending DDD-focused conferences, and applying tactical patterns, you're left with a crucial question: How do I ensure my design is effective? Tactical patterns within Domain-Driven Design (DDD) serve as guiding principles for creating clear and manageable domain models. However, achieving success with these patterns requires additional guidance. Interestingly, we've observed that a set of constraints initially designed for training purposes remarkably aligns with effective pattern implementation, offering a more ‘mechanical’ approach. Let's explore together how Object Calisthenics can elevate the design of your tactical DDD patterns, offering concrete help for those venturing into DDD for the first time!
Encryption in Microsoft 365 - ExpertsLive Netherlands 2024Albert Hoitingh
In this session I delve into the encryption technology used in Microsoft 365 and Microsoft Purview. Including the concepts of Customer Key and Double Key Encryption.
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 4DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 4. In this session, we will cover Test Manager overview along with SAP heatmap.
The UiPath Test Manager overview with SAP heatmap webinar offers a concise yet comprehensive exploration of the role of a Test Manager within SAP environments, coupled with the utilization of heatmaps for effective testing strategies.
Participants will gain insights into the responsibilities, challenges, and best practices associated with test management in SAP projects. Additionally, the webinar delves into the significance of heatmaps as a visual aid for identifying testing priorities, areas of risk, and resource allocation within SAP landscapes. Through this session, attendees can expect to enhance their understanding of test management principles while learning practical approaches to optimize testing processes in SAP environments using heatmap visualization techniques
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into SAP testing best practices
2. Heatmap utilization for testing
3. Optimization of testing processes
4. Demo
Topics covered:
Execution from the test manager
Orchestrator execution result
Defect reporting
SAP heatmap example with demo
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
SAP Sapphire 2024 - ASUG301 building better apps with SAP Fiori.pdfPeter Spielvogel
Building better applications for business users with SAP Fiori.
• What is SAP Fiori and why it matters to you
• How a better user experience drives measurable business benefits
• How to get started with SAP Fiori today
• How SAP Fiori elements accelerates application development
• How SAP Build Code includes SAP Fiori tools and other generative artificial intelligence capabilities
• How SAP Fiori paves the way for using AI in SAP apps
In his public lecture, Christian Timmerer provides insights into the fascinating history of video streaming, starting from its humble beginnings before YouTube to the groundbreaking technologies that now dominate platforms like Netflix and ORF ON. Timmerer also presents provocative contributions of his own that have significantly influenced the industry. He concludes by looking at future challenges and invites the audience to join in a discussion.
zkStudyClub - Reef: Fast Succinct Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Regex ProofsAlex Pruden
This paper presents Reef, a system for generating publicly verifiable succinct non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs that a committed document matches or does not match a regular expression. We describe applications such as proving the strength of passwords, the provenance of email despite redactions, the validity of oblivious DNS queries, and the existence of mutations in DNA. Reef supports the Perl Compatible Regular Expression syntax, including wildcards, alternation, ranges, capture groups, Kleene star, negations, and lookarounds. Reef introduces a new type of automata, Skipping Alternating Finite Automata (SAFA), that skips irrelevant parts of a document when producing proofs without undermining soundness, and instantiates SAFA with a lookup argument. Our experimental evaluation confirms that Reef can generate proofs for documents with 32M characters; the proofs are small and cheap to verify (under a second).
Paper: https://eprint.iacr.org/2023/1886
Dev Dives: Train smarter, not harder – active learning and UiPath LLMs for do...UiPathCommunity
💥 Speed, accuracy, and scaling – discover the superpowers of GenAI in action with UiPath Document Understanding and Communications Mining™:
See how to accelerate model training and optimize model performance with active learning
Learn about the latest enhancements to out-of-the-box document processing – with little to no training required
Get an exclusive demo of the new family of UiPath LLMs – GenAI models specialized for processing different types of documents and messages
This is a hands-on session specifically designed for automation developers and AI enthusiasts seeking to enhance their knowledge in leveraging the latest intelligent document processing capabilities offered by UiPath.
Speakers:
👨🏫 Andras Palfi, Senior Product Manager, UiPath
👩🏫 Lenka Dulovicova, Product Program Manager, UiPath
Essentials of Automations: The Art of Triggers and Actions in FMESafe Software
In this second installment of our Essentials of Automations webinar series, we’ll explore the landscape of triggers and actions, guiding you through the nuances of authoring and adapting workspaces for seamless automations. Gain an understanding of the full spectrum of triggers and actions available in FME, empowering you to enhance your workspaces for efficient automation.
We’ll kick things off by showcasing the most commonly used event-based triggers, introducing you to various automation workflows like manual triggers, schedules, directory watchers, and more. Plus, see how these elements play out in real scenarios.
Whether you’re tweaking your current setup or building from the ground up, this session will arm you with the tools and insights needed to transform your FME usage into a powerhouse of productivity. Join us to discover effective strategies that simplify complex processes, enhancing your productivity and transforming your data management practices with FME. Let’s turn complexity into clarity and make your workspaces work wonders!
Pushing the limits of ePRTC: 100ns holdover for 100 daysAdtran
At WSTS 2024, Alon Stern explored the topic of parametric holdover and explained how recent research findings can be implemented in real-world PNT networks to achieve 100 nanoseconds of accuracy for up to 100 days.
2. 10
D. Stauffer
Econophysics is regarded here as outside of sociophysics, and also ignored because of recent reviews are languages [14–16], Penna ageing models [16, 17], networks [18], crime
(Chap. 4 in Ball [12]), and traffic of cars or pedestrians [19] (for pedestrians see also Helbing [11]).
2 Does Sociophysics Make Any Sense?
People are not atoms. We may be able to understand quite accurately the structure of the
hydrogen atom, but who really understands the own marriage partner. Nevertheless already
Empedokles in Sicily more than two millennia ago found that people are like fluids: some
people mix easily like water and wine (an ancient Greek crime against humanity), and some
like water and oil do not mix. And a few months ago the German historian Imanuel Geiss
died, who described the decay of empires with Newton’s law of gravitational forces (but
disliked simulations to explain diplomatic actions during the few weeks before World War I).
It is the law of big numbers which allows the application of statistical physics methods. If
we throw one coin we cannot predict how it will fall, and if we look at one person we cannot
predict how this person will vote, when it will die, etc. But if we throw thousand coins, we
can predict that about 500 will fall on one side and the rest on the opposite side (except
when we cheat, or the coin sticks in the mud of a sport arena). And when we ask thousand
randomly selected people we may get a reasonable impression for an upcoming election.
Half a millennium ago, insurance against loss of ships in the Mediterranean trade became
possible, and life insurance relies on mortality and the Gompertz law of 1825 that the adult
probability to die within the next year (better: next month [20]) increases exponentially with
age. Such insurance is possible because it relies on the large number of insured people:
Some get money from the insurance and most don’t. My insurance got years ago most of
my savings and now pays me a monthly pension until I die; the more the journal referees
make troubles to my articles, the sooner I die and the less loss my insurance company will
make with me. Only when all the banks and governments are coupled together by their
debts, the law of large numbers no longer is valid since they all become one single unit [21].
(“Maastricht” rules on sovereign debts were broken by governments in Euroland since 1998,
a decade before the Lehman crash.)
Statistical physics applies these laws of statistics together with assumptions suitable for
physics models, and sociophysics uses similar methods for social models.
Outside physics the method of agent-based computer simulations is fashionable [22]
where single persons, etc. are simulated instead of averaging over all of them. Physicists do
that at least since 1953 with the Metropolis algorithm of statistical physics, also in most of
the simulations listed here. This book [22] by non-physicists, written about simultaneously
and independently from one by physicists [16], covers similar fields and similar methods but
barely overlaps in the references. Recent work from cognitive science and related disciplines
is listed in [23–27].
Did sociophysics have practical applications? When I got the work of Galam, Gefen and
Shapir [28], I told a younger colleague that I liked it. But after reading it he disliked it and
remarked to me that the paper helps management to control its workers better if a strike is
possible. In the three decades since then I had read about many strikes but not about any being prevented by this paper. Two decades later Galam [29] was criticised by other physicists
for having helped terrorists with his percolation application to terror support. I am not aware
that such percolation theory was applied in practice. However, a century ago physicists did
not believe that nuclear energy can be used. Our own subsection “Retirement Demography”
3. A Biased Review of Sociophysics
11
in Chap. 6 of [16] recommends immigration and higher retirement ages to balance the ageing of Europe; both aspects are highly controversial. Helbing’s [11] simulation that a column
before a door improves the speed of evacuation during a panic seems to me very practical.
These last two examples show useful applications.
3 Schelling Model for Urban Ghettos
The formation of urban ghettos is well known in the USA and elsewhere. Harlem in Manhattan (New York) is the most famous “black” district since nearly one century, extending
over dozens of blocks in north-south direction. Was it formed by conscious discrimination
e.g. from real-estate agencies, or was it the self-organised result of the preferences of residents to have neighbours of the same group? Of course, the Warsaw Ghetto, famous for its
1943 uprising, was formed by Nazi Germany. Four decades ago, Schelling [30] showed by
a simple Monte Carlo simulation (by hand, not by computer) of two groups A and B, that a
slight preference of A people to have A neighbours, and of B people to have B neighbours,
suffices to form clusters of predominantly A and predominantly B on a square lattice with
some empty sites, out of an initially random distribution.
Statistical physicists of course would think of the standard Ising model on a square lattice to understand such a question, with A people corresponding to up spins and B people
to down spins. Their ferromagnetic interaction gives a preference of A for A neighbours,
and the same for B. The temperature introduces randomness. Simulations with Kawasaki
dynamics (conserved magnetisation) have been made since decades. However, it took three
decades before physicists took up the Schelling model; see [31–35] for an early and some
recent (physics) publications.
It seems quite trivial that the equilibrium distribution is no longer random if people select
their residence with A/B preferences; but does it lead to “infinite” ghettos, i.e. to domains
which increase in size to infinity if the studied lattice tends to infinity? This phase separation
is well studied in the two-dimensional Ising model: for temperatures T above a critical temperature Tc , only finite clusters are formed. For temperatures below this critical temperature,
one large domain consisting mainly of group A, and another large domain consisting mainly
of group B, are formed after a simulation time proportional to a power of the lattice size.
Schelling could not see that his model does not give large ghettos, only small clusters [30]
as for T > Tc in Ising models, but Jones [36] (from a sociology institute, publishing in a sociology journal) corrected that by introducing more randomness into the Schelling model;
and Vinkovic (astrophysicist) and Kirman (economist) did it two decades after Jones [37].
Then large ghettos are formed as for Ising models for T < Tc . Nevertheless, the Jones paper today is cited much more rarely than Schelling, and mostly by physicists, not by his
sociology colleagues (see https://www.newisiknowledge.com for the Science Citation Index). Only now the physics and sociology communities show some cross-citations for the
Schelling model.
Of course, instead of merely two groups A and B one could look at several. Empirical data
for the preferred neighbours among four groups listed as White, Black, Hispanic and Asian
in Los Angeles are given by [38]. Corresponding Potts generalisations of the SchellingIsing version of [31] were published earlier [39]. For Schelling models on networks, one
may break the links between nodes occupied by neighbours from different groups [40], as
done before for other networks [41–43].
In summary of this section, cooperation of physicists with sociologists could have pushed
research progress by many years.
4. 12
D. Stauffer
4 Opinion Dynamics
Much of the opinion simulations, [44] and Chap. 6 in [16], is based on the voter or majorityvote models [45–48], the negotiators of Deffuant et al. [49], the opportunists of Hegselmann
and Krause [52], and the Sznajd missionaries [53], the latter three originating all near the
year 2000. They check if originally randomly distributed opinions converge towards one
(“consensus”), two (“polarisation”) or more (“fragmentation”) shared opinions. (Warning:
In some fields “polarisation” means a non-centric consensus, like in ferroelectrics. Reference [54] find a phase transition between mainly consensus and perpetual conflict, as in
Wikipedia.) Reference [55] is an earlier interdisciplinary example; see also [3].
The voter or majority-vote models [45–48] are Ising-like: Opinions are +1 or −1, and
at each iteration everybody follows one randomly selected neighbour or the majority of the
neighbourhood, respectively, except that with a probability q (which corresponds to thermal
noise) it refuses to do so. References [45–48] gave a recent application.
Negotiators of Deffuant et al. [49] each have an opinion which can be represented by a
real number or by an integer. (Opinions on more than one subject are possible [50, 51] but
we first deal with one opinion only. Integer opinions are simplifications and often used in
opinion polls when people are asked if they agree fully, partly, or not at all with an assertion.) Each agent interacts during one time step with a randomly selected other negotiator.
If their two opinions differ, each opinion shifts partly to that of the other negotiator, by a
fraction of the difference. If that fraction is 1/2, they agree which is less realistic than if
they nearly agree (fraction < 1/2). But if the two opinions are too far apart, they don’t even
start to negotiate and their opinions remain unchanged. Thus there are no periodic boundary
conditions applied to opinions; in contrast to real politics, the extreme Left and the extreme
Right do not cooperate. (Axelrod studied some aspects already earlier [56, 57].)
The opportunists also talk only with people who are not too far away from their own
opinion (a real number). Each person at each time step takes the average opinion of all the
people in the system which do not differ too much of their own past opinion. Thus in contrast
to the binary interactions of negotiators we have multi-agent interactions of opportunists.
(Instead of opportunism one can also talk of compromise here but that word applies better
to the negotiators of Deffuant et al.)
Finally, the missionaries of the Sznajd model [53] try to convince the neighbourhood of
their own opinion. They succeed if and only if two neighbouring missionaries agree among
themselves; then they force this opinion onto their neighbourhood (i.e. on six neighbours
for a square lattice). For only two opinions on the square lattice, one has a phase transition
depending on the initial fraction of randomly distributed opinions: The opinion which initially had a (small) majority attracts the whole population to its side. In one dimension no
such transition takes place [53], just as in the Ising model. For a review of Sznajd models
see [58–60].
A review of both negotiators and opportunists was given by Lorenz [44]. More information on missionaries, negotiators and opportunists, also for more than one subject one has
an opinion on [50, 51], are given in [16].
A connection between the above opinion dynamics and econophysics are the modifications of the usual Ising model to simulate tax evasion. Spin up corresponds to honest tax
payers, and spin down to people who cheat on their income tax declaration. (I am not an
experimental physicist.) For T > Tc without any modification, half of these Ising tax payers cheat. However, if every year with probability p the declarations are audited and fraud
is detected, and if discovered tax cheaters then become honest for k consecutive years, the
fraction of tax cheaters not surprisingly goes down towards zero for increasing p and/or k
5. A Biased Review of Sociophysics
13
[61, 62], also on various networks. Journal of Economic Psychology even plans a special
issue on tax evasion. According to https://www.taxjustice.net, July 2012, hundreds of GigaDollars of taxes due are not paid world-wide each year.
A rather different kind of opinion dynamics is the evolution of altruism among animals,
including homo sapiens. Why does a bee sacrifice its life by stinging me? Three recent
papers, from a long history of research, are [63–65]. For the stone age, evolution of human
culture by spreading of information was simulated by diffusion on percolating square lattices
[66], and tax evasion, cooperation and the emergence of peaceful leadership by a much more
complicated model [67].
5 Wars and Lesser Evils
Reality is not as peaceful as a computer simulation, and World War II was presumably the
most deadly of all wars, with World War I far behind.
The “guilt” for World War I was hotly debated for decades; in contrast to many books
and articles, the Versailles peace treaty of 1919 did not blame only Germany for this war.
Richardson [68] used simple differential equations to explain this and other wars as coming
from the other side’s armaments and own dissatisfaction with the status quo, while the cost
of armaments and war pushes for peace. Later work [69] used human beings to simulate ten
leaders during the weeks before World War I; these simulators made more peaceful decisions
than the politicians of July 1914. Another work simulated only the German emperor and the
Russian tsar [70] while [71] for a more complex study used a supercomputer of that time.
Historians criticised that work because it relied on outdated history books which explained
the war more by accidents than by intentions. At that time also disarmament was simulated
using students instead of computers [72]. Except for Richardson [68] this early work is
barely cited in physics journals.
The creation of the anti-Hitler coalition of World War II was simulated by Axelrod and
Bennett [56, 57]. It contains numerous parameters describing the properties of European
countries and their interrelations and thus is difficult to reproduce. Galam [73, 74] has more
fundamental criticism of that work.
The decay of Yugoslavia [75] led to the most murderous wars in Europe after World War
II, particularly in Bosnia-Hercegovina 1992–1995 including genocide. The emergence of
local fighting between three groups was simulated by Lim et al. [76] using a Potts model.
Intergroup fighting is possible if the regions where one group dominates are neither too
small not too large. Lim et al. apply their model to the Bosnia-Hercegovina war but neglect
the outside initiation and influence from Belgrade (Serbia) and Zagreb (Croatia) in that war
[77, 78]. Such influence was partially taken into account in a linguistic simulation later [79].
Figure 1 shows computer simulations of egoist, ethnocentric, altruistic and cosmopolitan
behaviour in a population [64, 65]. Often the Yugoslavia wars are described as ethnic. “Ethnic”, defined e.g. through language, religion [80–85], history, biology (race, “blood”, DNA)
is now part of international law through UN resolutions since 1992 against “ethnic cleansing”. Ethnicity is often construed or even imposed on people [86–89], but the deaths and
losses of homeland are real.
How to win a war is another question. Kress [90] reviewed modern simulation methods
of war and other armed conflicts. Mongin [91] applied game theory to a military decision
made by Napoléon before the battle of Waterloo, two centuries ago. Mongin concludes that
the decision was correct; nevertheless Napoléon lost and ABBA won. A more general game
theory explains how norms can generate conflict [92, 93].
6. 14
D. Stauffer
Fig. 1 Part of a 300 × 300
square lattice with 1 %
Watts-Strogatz rewiring at
intermediate times, with egoists
(∗), ethnocentrics (+), altruists
(×) and cosmopolitans (square)
[64, 65], showing domain
formation within a large
population. The last three groups
help others by an amount
proportional to the amount of
help they got from them during
the five preceding time steps
Fig. 2 Time until revolution
versus Tc /T . A straight line here
means an Arrhenius law; the line
in the figure corresponds to
L = 1001, the plus signs to
L = 301; also L = 3001 (for
higher temperatures only) gave
about the same flip times.
From [95]
The lifetimes t (in centuries) of Chinese imperial dynasties during the last two millennia follow roughly a probability distribution exp(−t) and were modelled by Bak-TangWiesenfeld sandpiles, modified with some long-range links [94]. Revolutions may lead to
war; the ones of 2011 in Tunisia and Egypt did not and inspired an Ising model for revolutions [95]. Ising spins point up for people wanting change, and down for staying with the
government. They are influenced by an up-field proportional to the number of up spins [96],
and by a random local down field measuring the conservative tendency of each individual
“spin”. Initially all spins are down, and they flip irreversibly up by heat bath kinetics. After some time, spontaneously through thermal fluctuations and without the help of initial
revolutionaries like Lenin and Trotsky, enough revolutionary opinions have developed to
flip the magnetisation from negative to positive values. This time obeys an Arrhenius law
proportional to exp(const/T ), Fig. 2.
6 Citations
The Science Citation Index (https://www.newisiknowledge.com) is expensive but useful.
One can find which later journal articles cited a given paper or book, provided the company
7. A Biased Review of Sociophysics
15
of the Institute of Scientific Information subscribes to that journal. Since the end of the
1960s I check my citations on it. But one should be aware of the fact that cited books are
listed not at all or only under the name of the first author, while cited journal articles are
also listed under the name of the further authors. And citing books are ignored completely.
For example, the most cited work of the late B.B. Mandelbrot is his 1982 book: The Fractal
Geometry of Nature. The nearly 8000 citations can be found on the Web of Science under
“Cited Reference Search”, but if after “Search” and “Create Citation Record” one gets his
whole list of publications, ranked by the number of citations, the book is missing there and
a journal article with much less citations heads the ranked list.
Thus it is dangerous to determine scientific quality by the number of citations or by
the Hirsch index (h-index with “Create Citation Record”) [97, 98] as long as books are
ignored. An author who knows the own books and their first authors can include the cited
books on “Cited Reference Search”, but automated citation counts like the h-index ignore
them. If scholars get jobs or grants according to their h-index of other book-ignoring citation
counts, this quality criterion will discourage them to write books, and push them to publish
in Science or Nature. This is less dangerous for physics than for historiography, but seldomly
mentioned in the literature.
(To determine the h-index, the ranked list of journal articles produced by “Create Citation
Record” starts with the most-cited paper with n1 citations, then comes the second-most cited
one with n2 citations, and in general the r-ranked article with nr citations. Thus nr decreases
with increasing rank r. The h-index is that value of r for which nr = r.)
Physicists have systematically analysed citation counts (instead of merely counting their
own and those of their main enemies) at least since Redner 1998 [99]. His work was cited
more than 500 times, about half as much as the later h-index [97, 98]. Recent papers by
physicists deal with the impact of Nobel prizes [100], universality in citation statistics [101],
the tails of the citation distribution [102–104], co-author ranking [105], allocation among
coauthors [106], and clustering within citation networks [107].
Other criticism of quality measures via citations are better known [108]. One should not
forget, however, that experienced scientists often have to grade works of their students; are
these evaluations more fair than citation counts? And what about peer review? My own
referee reports are infallible, but those for my papers are nearly always utterly unfair. Measuring quality is difficult, but the one who evaluates others has to accept that (s)he is also
evaluated by others. As US president and peace Nobel laureate Jimmy Carter said three
decades ago: “Life is unfair.”
And as the citation lists for Redner [99] and Hirsch [97, 98] show, this problem is truly
interdisciplinary.
7 Conclusion
Inspite of much talk since decades about the need for interdisciplinary research, the bibliographies on the same subject by authors from different disciplines do not show as much
overlap as they should (and as they do in citation analysis). Perhaps the present (literature)
review helps to improve this situation.
T. Hadzibeganovic, M. Ausloos, S. Galam, K. Kulakowski, S. Solomon, J. Kertész,
S. Fortunato and D. Helbing helped with this manuscript.
8. 16
D. Stauffer
Appendix: Critique of Mean Field Theories
This section explains mean field theory for readers from outside statistical physics, as well
as its dangers.
If you want to get answers by paper and pencil, you can use the mean field approximation
(also called molecular field approximation), which in economics corresponds to the approximation by a representative agent. Let us take the Ising model on an L × L square lattice,
with spins (magnetic moments, binary variables, Republicans or Democrats) Si = ±1 and
an energy
E = −J
Si Sj − H
ij
Si
i
where the first sum goes over all ordered pairs of neighbour sites i and j . Thus the “bond”
between sites A and B appears only once in this sum, and not twice. The second sum proportional to the magnetic up field H runs over all sites of the system. We approximate
in the first sum the Sj by its average value, which is just the normalised magnetisation
m = M/L2 = i Si /L2 . Then the energy is
E = −J
Si m − H
ij
Si = −Heff
i
Si
i
with the effective field
Heff = H + J
m = H + J qm
j
where the sum runs over the q neighbours only and is proportional to the magnetisation m.
Thus the energy Ei of spin i no longer is coupled to other spins j and equals ±Heff . The
probabilities p for up and down orientations are now
p(Si = +1) =
1
exp(Heff /T );
Z
p(Si = −1) =
1
exp(−Heff /T )
Z
with
Z = exp(Heff /T ) + exp(−Heff /T )
and thus
m = p(Si = +1) − p(Si = −1) = tanh(Heff /T ) = tanh (H + J qm)/T
with the function tanh(x) = (ex − e−x )/(ex + e−x ). This implicit equation can be solved
graphically; for small m and H /T , tanh(x) = x − x 3 /3 + · · · gives
1
H /T = (1 − Tc /T )m + m3 + · · · ; Tc = qJ
3
related to Lev Davidovich Landau’s theory of 1937 for critical phenomena (T near Tc , m
and H /T small) near phase transitions.
All this looks very nice except that it is wrong: In the one-dimensional Ising model, Tc is
zero instead of the mean field approximation Tc = qJ . The larger the number of neighbours
and the dimensionality of the lattice is, the more accurate is the mean field approximation.
Basically, the approximation to replace Si Sj by an average Si m takes into account the influence of Sj on Si but not the fact that this Si again influences Sj creating a feedback.
Thus, instead of using mean field approximations, one should treat each spin (each human
being, . . .) individually and not as an average. Outside of physics such simulations of many
9. A Biased Review of Sociophysics
17
individuals are often called “agent based” [22], presumably the first one was the Metropolis
algorithm published in 1953 by the group of Edward Teller, who is historically known from
the US hydrogen bomb and Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars, SDI).
Of course, physicists are not the only ones who noticed the pitfalls of mean field approximations. For example, a historian [109] years ago criticised political psychology and
social sciences: “There is no collective individual” or “generalised individual”. And common sense tells us that no German woman gave birth to 1.4 babies, even though this is the
average since about four decades. A medical application is screening for prostate cancer.
Committees in USA, Germany and France in recent months recommended against routine
screening for PSA (prostate-specific antigen) in male blood, since this simple test is neither
a sufficient nor a necessary indication for cancer. However, I am not average, and when PSA
concentration doubles each semester while tissue tests called biopsies fail to see cancer, then
relying on PSA warnings is better than relying on averages.
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