The document discusses the General Theory of Systems as formulated by Ludwig von Bertalanffy. It provides definitions of key terms like system, systems theory, and general systems theory. It also summarizes several trends and developments that emerged from general systems theory, including cybernetics, information theory, game theory, decision theory, topology/relational mathematics, factor analysis, systems engineering, and operations research. Each of these areas applies a systems perspective to analyze various technical, conceptual, and complex systems.

2.  General Theory of Systems ""
 Definition, History and authors of the General Theory of Systems. "Ludwig von Bertalanffy (September 19,
1901, Vienna, Austria - June 12, 1972, New York, United States) was a biologist, Recognized for having
formulated Systems Theory: Austrian citizen, he worked a lot in the United States, where he was
discriminated against for not having wanted to present himself as a victim of Nazism, which made him return
to Europe, called the Father of the General Theory of Systems. Definition of General Systems Theory
SYSTEM: A set of two or more interrelated elements that work together to achieve a common goal
SYSTEMS THEORY: are theories that describe the structure and behavior of systems. complete aspect of
specific types of systems, from technical systems (hard) to conceptual systems (soft), increasing their level
of generalization and abstraction. The General System (TGS) has been described as: - a conventional
mathematical theory - a metalanguage - a way of thinking - a hierarchy of systems theories with increasing
generality. Ludwig von Bertalanffy, who introduced the TGS, had no intention of being a specific conventional
theory. He used that term in the sense of a collective name for system problems.

3.  The elements of a system co-operate processing information. As everyone
handles their own concept of information, it would be advisable to objectify it
from a scientific perspective. The concepts that the physicist Claude Shannon
exposes in his Theory of the Information seem strange and incomplete. After
all, what does it mean that entropy is a measure of the amount of information?
But Shannon was very well inspired and better advised: "Why do not you call it
entropy? (...) Nobody really knows what entropy is, so in any discussion you
will always be in a position of advantage" suggested John von Neumann back
in 1948. In this way information was linked to energy and disorder. And, in a
paradoxical consequence, the definition of information lost meaning. The
terminological confusion will be less surprising if we notice that Shannon
worked for the Bell, a large telephone company more concerned with
cheapening the how than in considering what. There are other definitions of
information, some clearly superstitious, such as the one that holds that
information is what the public demands vigorously because it has the right to
know everything that happens. From a cybernetic point of view, information
corresponds to changes in entropy, that is, to the dynamics of energy flows and
transformations. Of course, entropy follows its own course, which is why Clarke
described it as "the arrow of time". But, while being predictable in general terms
and to a certain extent, entropy also leaves room for large doses of uncertainty.

4. The characteristics of the cybernetic point of view:
• Everything that exists can be considered as a system
• A system is a set of structurally and operationally related
elements.
• Structurally, the entry, process and exit sections can be
distinguished.
• Operationally, the function of a system is to process
information.
• The information is produced with the changes of entropy,
which is the tendency to disorder or the dissipation of energy.
• The systems interact with each other both vertically and
transversely.
• Systems can operate on at least one of the following three
levels:
• Physical • Biological • Symbolic

5. In the previous points we discussed the General Systems Theory, as stated by its
pioneers (Von Bertalanffy, Boulding and others). From this theory have emerged several
trends that seek their practical application through applied science. For example, there
are a number of new developments that attempt to achieve the objective indicated
above. Among others, we can list the following:
Cybernetics This new science, developed by Norbert Weiner of MIT in his classic book
"Cybernetics", is based on the principle of feedback (or circular causation) and
homeostasis; explains the mechanisms of communication and control in machines and
living beings that help to understand the behavior generated by these systems that are
characterized by their purposes, motivated by the search for some goal, with self-
organization and self-control capabilities .

6. 
b) The Theory of Information This introduces the concept of information as a measurable quantity, through an isomorphic expression with
negative entropy in physics. Indeed, mathematicians who have developed this theory have reached the surprising conclusion that the
formula of information is exactly the same as the formula of entropy, only with the changed sign, from which it follows that:
 information = entropy or
 information = neguentropy

c) The Theory of games (or Games Theory)
 Developed by Morgenstein and, mainly, by von Neuman, it tries to analyze, through a novel frame of reference rnatemática, the
competition that takes place between two or more rational systems (or by a system) antagonist, those that look for to maximize their gains
and minimize their losses (that is, they seek to achieve or "play" the optimal strategy).

d) The Theory of Decision
 In general, two different lines of analysis have been followed in this field. One is the Theory of Decision itself, which seeks to
analyze, in a manner similar to the Theory of the Games, the rational selection of alternatives within organizations or social
systems. It is based on the examination of a large number of situations and their possible consequences, thus determining (by
statistical procedures, fundamentally based on the taking of probabilities), a decision that optimizes the result.

7. e) Topology or Relational Mathematics
Topology has been recognized as a panicular area of ​​mathematics in the last 50 years, and its main growth has originated within the
last 30 years. It is one of the new branches of mathematics that has shown the most power and has produced strong repercussions
in most of the old branches of this science and has also had an important effect on the other sciences, including in the social
sciences. It started as a response to the need for classical analysis of calculus and differential equations. However, topology is not a
branch of analysis, but a kind of geometry, a geometry rather than geometric thinking based on proof of the existence of a certain
theorem, in fields such as networks, graphs, sets.
f) Factor Analysis
That is to say, the isolation, by means of mathematical analysis, of the factors in those problems characterized by being
multivariable. Its application has been concentrated in different areas; within the social sciences especially in psychology.

8. 
g) The Engineering of Systems It refers to the planning, design, evaluation and scientific construction of man-machine
systems. The theoretical interest of this field is found in the fact that those entities whose components are heterogeneous
(men, machines, buildings, money and other objects, flows of raw materials, production flows, etc.) can be analyzed as
systems or systems. you can apply the systems analysis.
h) Operations Research It is the scientific control of the existing systems of men,
machines, materials, money, etc. Perhaps the most modern and advanced definition in
this field is that of Staffor Beer, one of the first participants in the Operational Research,
which was created in England during the Second World War, and that, formed by wise
men and technicians of the different branches of the know, faced and solved particular
problems presented by the armed forces.

9. DYNAMIC From the word dynamos, which comes from the Greek, is where the concept of dynamics that we know
today arises. A term the Hellene that can be translated as force or power, and that is very in relation to one of the
varied meanings that the term has that at this moment we are going to analyze in depth.
Complex system A complex system is composed of several interconnected or interlaced parts
whose links create additional information not previously seen by the observer. In a complex system,
however, there are hidden variables whose ignorance prevents us from analyzing the system with
precision.

10. 
Generic Structures Concept Generic structures (or systemic archetypes) are
representations of problematic organizational situations that are repeated in
different contexts, analyzed from the framework of the DYNAMICS OF SYSTEMS,
which present dynamic counter-intuitive behaviors.
 Each generic structure is represented by a small diagram of causal cycles
(constituted by a few feedback loops), which shows the causal structure that
produces the problematic situation associated with the generic structure.
 Use First, these models can be used as diagnostic tools in order to have a better
understanding of the current situation of the problem being addressed. Second, they
can be used as planning tools, in the sense that they can be useful to anticipate
future consequences.
 In the third place, they allow us to identify resolving problematic situations and avoid
repeating mistakes in the future.
 Cases of generic structures Climbing.
 Success for those who succeed. Limits to growth.
 Quick solutions that fail. Erosion of goals. Displacement of the load.
 Growth and underinvestment. Compensation between process and delay.
 Displacement of the load towards the intervention. Tragedy of the common ground.

11. The Reductionist approach
It seeks to study a complex phenomenon, reducing it to the study of its constituent units so that we
can explain the complex phenomenon through the individual study of one of its constituents.
Cybernetics
It is a term that can be used as a noun or as an adjective. In the first case, refers to the scientific
specialty that compares the operation of a machine and that of a living being, especially in relation
to communication and regulatory mechanisms.
Information theory, also known as mathematical theory of communication, is a theoretical proposal
presented by Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver at the end of the 1940s

12. Theory of the Games.
Game theory is an area of ​​applied mathematics that uses models to study interactions in
formalized incentive structures (so-called "games"). Game theory has become an extremely
important tool for economic theory and has helped to better understand human behavior in the
face of decision making. Their researchers study the optimal strategies as well as the predicted
and observed behavior of individuals in games. Apparently different types of interaction can in fact
present a similar incentive structure and, therefore, a same game can be represented a thousand
times together.Teoría de la Decisión
The theory of decision is an interdisciplinary area of ​​study, related to various branches of science,
such as Administration, Economics and Psychology (based on cognitive-behavioral perspectives). It
concerns the form and study of the behavior and psychic phenomena of those who make decisions
(real or fictitious), as well as the conditions by which decisions must be made.
Theory of networks
This theory is a mathematical technique that has provided an effective aid in the treatment of the
problems of transportation of production.Problemas fundamentales

Shortest path problem Maximum flow models. Planning, programming and control of project
activities.

In each case, a function is defined in the arcs of the network, but the algebra for the
manipulation of these quantitative measures is different from model to model. A key concept in
network models is that although the structure of several networks may be identical, the
analysis of the functional relationships defined on the network may be different for different
models, hence the results of the analysis are different.

13. Topology or Relational Mathematics. T
he topology or relational mathematics is a classical derivation of mathematics (50 years ago and for 30 years it
has had a great blow of growth). This was implemented to find suitable forms for the calculation and differential
equations also for geometric thinking that covers fields such as: networks, graphics. Networks Networks are
central points, in which all networks of a certain type are connected, where each of the communications made
must pass through this point.
Factorial analysis It is a statistical technique of data reduction used to explain the correlations between the
observed variables in terms of a smaller number of unobserved variables called factors. The observed variables
are modeled as linear combinations of factors plus error expressions.
Factor analysis originated in psychometrics, and is used in behavioral sciences such as social sciences,
marketing, product management, operational research, and other applied sciences that deal with large amounts of
data. Systems engineering is a way of interdisciplinary approach that allows to study and understand reality, with
the purpose of implementing or optimizing complex systems.
It can also be seen as the technological application of systems theory to the efforts of engineering, adopting
throughout this work the systemic paradigm. Systems engineering integrates other disciplines and specialty
groups in a team effort, forming a focused development process.
Systems Engineering has, as a field of study, any existing system. For example, systems engineering can study
the digestive system or the human immune system, or perhaps, the tax system of a specific country. In this sense,
although some countries associate systems engineering as only associated computer systems, this is incorrect,
since computer systems are a small part of a huge range of types and types of systems.
Systems engineering is the application of the mathematical and physical sciences to develop systems that
economically use the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of humanity.

14. Operations Research or Operations Research (ORu Operations Research) is a
discipline that consists in the application of advanced analytical methods with the
purpose of supporting the decision-making process, identifying the best possible
courses of action. In this context, Operations Research uses techniques of mathematical
modeling, statistical analysis and mathematical optimization, with the aim of reaching
optimal solutions or close to them when faced with complex decision problems. It is
expected that the decisions reached through the use of an operational research model
are significantly better compared to those decisions that could be made using the simple
intuition or experience of the decision maker. The above is particularly true in complex
real-world problems, which consider hundreds, even thousands of decision variables
and constraints.

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