This is a review of "The Journal of Social History" which I wrote for my Introduction to Historical Methods class at MSUM. Red marks courtesy of Prof. Nathan Clarke.
This is a review of "The Journal of Social History" which I wrote for my Introduction to Historical Methods class at MSUM. Red marks courtesy of Prof. Nathan Clarke.
Review of International Studies (2007), 33, 3–24 Copyright B.docxmichael591
Review of International Studies (2007), 33, 3–24 Copyright � British International Studies Association
doi:10.1017/S0260210507007371
Introduction
Still critical after all these years? The past,
present and future of Critical Theory in
International Relations
NICHOLAS RENGGER AND BEN THIRKELL-WHITE*
Twenty-five years ago, theoretical reflection on International Relations (IR) was
dominated by three broad discourses. In the United States the behavioural revolution
of the 1950s and 1960s had helped to create a field that was heavily influenced by
various assumptions allegedly derived from the natural sciences. Of course, variety
existed within the behaviourist camp. Some preferred the heavily quantitative
approach that had become especially influential in the 1960s, while others were
exploring the burgeoning literature of rational and public choice, derived from the
game theoretic approaches pioneered at the RAND corporation. Perhaps the most
influential theoretical voice of the late 1970s, Kenneth Waltz, chose neither; instead he
developed his Theory of International Politics around an austere conception of parsi-
mony and systems derived from his reading in contemporary philosophy of science.1
These positivist methods were adopted not just in the United States but also in
Europe, Asia and the UK. But in Britain a second, older approach, more influenced
by history, law and by philosophy was still widely admired. The ‘classical approach’
to international theory had yet to formally emerge into the ‘English School’ but many
of its texts had been written and it was certainly a force to be reckoned with.2
* The authors would like to thank all the contributors to this special issue, including our two referees.
We would also like to thank Kate Schick for comments on drafts and broader discussion of the
subject matter.
1 Discussions of the development and character of so-called ‘positivist’ IR are something of a drug on
the market. Many of them, of course, treat IR and political science as virtually interchangeable. For
discussions of the rise of ‘positivist’ political science, see: Bernard Crick, The American Science of
Politics (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1960). Klaus Knorr and
James Rosenau (eds.), Contending Approaches to International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1969) highlight the emergence of what might be termed ‘classical’ behaviouralist
approaches. The growing diversity of the field can be seen in K. J. Holsti, The Dividing Discipline
(London; Allen and Unwin, 1985) and the debates between positivism and its critics traced ably in
the introduction to Steve Smith, Ken Booth and Marysia Zalewski (eds.), International Theory;
Positivism, and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Waltz’s move from a
traditional to a much more scientific mode of theory is found, of course, in Theory of International
Politics (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1979).
2 The exhaustive (an.
CHARLES W. CHESNUTT LIBRARY ELECTRONIC RESERVE COLLECTI.docxbissacr
CHARLES W. CHESNUTT LIBRARY
ELECTRONIC RESERVE COLLECTION
The Electronic Reserve Collection is a service for FSU students, faculty, and staff.
Access to the collection is by professor’s name or course number only.
The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making
of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Under certain conditions
specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other
reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction not
be “used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research.” If a user
makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of
“fair use,” that user may be liable for copyright infringement. The Chesnutt Library
reserves the right to refuse to accept an electronic reserve request, if, in its judgment,
fulfillment of the request would involve violation of copyright law.
Robert C. Williams
During the tenth decade of his unusually eventful and scholarly life, the
Afro-American thinker William Edward Burghardt DuBois (1868-1963) ut-
tered insightful and prophetic words which summarized his view of American..- .-.._
social reality:
Government is for the people’s progress and not for the comfort of an
aristocracy. The object of industry is the welfare of the workers and not
the wealth of the owners. The object of civilization is the cultural
progress of the mass of workers and not merely of the intellectual elite.
(from a speech to the world over
delivered in Peking, China, on his
n i n e t y - f i r s t b i r t h d a y , 1 9 5 9 )
No universal selfishness can bring social good to all . . [or] restore
democracy in [the USA] . . . [the path of social progress in America]
will call for:
1. Public ownership of natural resources and of all capital.
2 . P u b l i c c o n t r o l o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .
3. Abolition of poverty and limitation of personal income.
4. No exploitation of labor.
5. Social medicine, with hospitalization and care of the old.
6. Free education for all.
7. Training for jobs and jobs for all.
8 . D i s c i p l i n e f o r g r o w t h a n d r e f o r m .
9. Freedom under law.
10. No dogmatic religion.
(from letter of application for membership in
t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y o f t h e U S A , 1 9 6 1 )
In this all too brief essay I will not attempt to challenge the above as-
sertions since I regard them as well-founded. Instead, I will argue that the
writings of DuBois support the above observations as characteristic of his
evolving social philosophy. His views, as expressed above, are substantiated
in at least two ways. First, they relate to the realities of politics and social
change/stratification which he repeatedly experienced in twentieth century
America. Second, they convey his sense---expressed in numerous wa.
Due April 16, 2020The final research paper for this class is.docxastonrenna
Due April 16, 2020
The final research paper for this class is your opportunity to tie together you years here at FIU as an international relations student with what has been covered in this course. The topic is up to you to decide. A good topic will engage the course literature and lectures. A good method for devising a research topic will be to reflect on areas of knowledge you have built up while at FIU and begin to re-examine those topics through the fundamental literature we have covered in this course. In order to avoid restricting your creativity, the final paper will not have a page limit. You will be expected to fully engage your topic, research question, and address all the issues in that area of international relations. You can choose your own topic about an historical or current event or person as seen from the perspective of a philosopher. For example, what would Plato have said about the election of President Trump? How would Arendt have understood the popular hysteria leading to the Rwandan Genocide?
This paper and the final should be formatted to be double-spaced, 1 inch margin, and 12 font.
You will locate 4-6 sources that are important for understanding your topic and following the citation of your chosen source there will be 1-3 sentences explaining how/why this source will support your topic. Only peer reviewed journals and/or university press books are acceptable. Some popular journals like Newsweek or the Economist could be used. You must also include one class reading in your annotated bibliography.
ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT
TIMOTHY J. LOMPERIS
Saint Louis University
S cholars of Westem political thought have .not dis-puted the fact that there is a rich body of political thought in Asia. They lmve just not bothered to
incorporate it into their corpus. This chapter seeks to pro-
vide long-overdue recognition to this body of thought by
calling attention to the fact that despite its heavy religious
content (until modern times), the encounter with political
ideas in Asia is just as profound as it is in the West. In fact,
since these ideas in Asia are heavily fertilized by their
Western colonial legacy, the West has much to learn about
itself from these Asian borders to the West's material and
intellectual reach.
In this presentation of Asian political thought, what will
emerge is that the such central ideas as democracy,ji-eedom,
and equality were forn1ed in a historical context different
from the West. In the West, these ideas were expressed and
then refined through a prism of small city-states in Greece,
the universal empire of Rome, the subsequent collapse of this
imperium politically but its persistence intellectually in the
Thomist medieval synthesis, the smashing fem1ent (both
intellectually and institutionally) of the Renaissance and the
Reformation, and the birth of the modern nation-state in
the twin crucibles of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and
the French Revolution (1789-1795). ...
Due April 16, 2020The final research paper for this class is.docxmadlynplamondon
Due April 16, 2020
The final research paper for this class is your opportunity to tie together you years here at FIU as an international relations student with what has been covered in this course. The topic is up to you to decide. A good topic will engage the course literature and lectures. A good method for devising a research topic will be to reflect on areas of knowledge you have built up while at FIU and begin to re-examine those topics through the fundamental literature we have covered in this course. In order to avoid restricting your creativity, the final paper will not have a page limit. You will be expected to fully engage your topic, research question, and address all the issues in that area of international relations. You can choose your own topic about an historical or current event or person as seen from the perspective of a philosopher. For example, what would Plato have said about the election of President Trump? How would Arendt have understood the popular hysteria leading to the Rwandan Genocide?
This paper and the final should be formatted to be double-spaced, 1 inch margin, and 12 font.
You will locate 4-6 sources that are important for understanding your topic and following the citation of your chosen source there will be 1-3 sentences explaining how/why this source will support your topic. Only peer reviewed journals and/or university press books are acceptable. Some popular journals like Newsweek or the Economist could be used. You must also include one class reading in your annotated bibliography.
ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT
TIMOTHY J. LOMPERIS
Saint Louis University
S cholars of Westem political thought have .not dis-puted the fact that there is a rich body of political thought in Asia. They lmve just not bothered to
incorporate it into their corpus. This chapter seeks to pro-
vide long-overdue recognition to this body of thought by
calling attention to the fact that despite its heavy religious
content (until modern times), the encounter with political
ideas in Asia is just as profound as it is in the West. In fact,
since these ideas in Asia are heavily fertilized by their
Western colonial legacy, the West has much to learn about
itself from these Asian borders to the West's material and
intellectual reach.
In this presentation of Asian political thought, what will
emerge is that the such central ideas as democracy,ji-eedom,
and equality were forn1ed in a historical context different
from the West. In the West, these ideas were expressed and
then refined through a prism of small city-states in Greece,
the universal empire of Rome, the subsequent collapse of this
imperium politically but its persistence intellectually in the
Thomist medieval synthesis, the smashing fem1ent (both
intellectually and institutionally) of the Renaissance and the
Reformation, and the birth of the modern nation-state in
the twin crucibles of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and
the French Revolution (1789-1795). ...
002 Essay Abstract Example ~ Thatsnotus. How To Write An Abstract For An Essay - How To Write A Great Essay .... writing an abstract for an essay. Abstract Essay Topics. Thesis Abstract Examples - Thesis Title Ideas for College. 016 What Is Art Essay Example ~ Thatsnotus. PPT - Techniques & Research in Music Education PowerPoint Presentation .... 002 Writing Satirical Essay P1 ~ Thatsnotus. 001 Abstract Essay Research Paper Sample ~ Thatsnotus. ⭐ Abstract topics to write about. How to Write an Abstract (with .... 004 Essay Example Philosophy Topics Future Teachers Of Education .... Opinion Essay Topics. Kymaro Health & Beauty. Ap Essay Questions For Jane Eyre | PDF. Research Paper Abstract | Writing Help, Outline Example, Paper Topics. example of an essay abstract - World Social Media Mainstreet. Abstract Essay Topics | Essay on Abstract Topics | Hitbullseye.
vo_l. -, 19_6!-1963; and Foreign Relations of the United Sta.docxjolleybendicty
vo_l. ?<-, 19_6!-1963; and Foreign Relations of the United States, "Cuban
Missile Cnsis and Aftermath," vol. XI, 1961-1963. See www.state.gov/
Docume~ts Rel~tin~ to American Foreign Policy: The Cuban Missile Crisis is a
website mam~amed by Mount Holyoke College. The collection includes
d~c~men~s: lmks, and other historical materials concerning the Cuban
missile cnsis. See www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/cuba.htm
360
ISSUE /0 ... ~
~
Did the Activism of the 1960s
Produce a Better Nation?
YES: Terry H. Anderson, from The Sea Change (Oxford University
Press, 1995)
NO: Peter Clecak, from The New Left (Harper & Row, 1973)
Learning Outcomes
After reading this issue, you should be able to:
• Define the term "New Left" as it applies to the 1960s.
• Summarize the main goals of the Port Huron Statement.
• Evaluate the legacy of the Students for a Democratic Society
(SDS) and the Youth International Party ("Yippies").
• Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the New Left critique
of American society.
• Compare and contrast the political and cultural rebels of the
1960s in terms of their leadership, goals, strategies, and level
of success in affecting change.
ISSUE SUMMARY
YES: Terry H. Anderson concludes that the activism of the 1960s in
spired citizens of all types to demand changes that produced a trans
formation of American politics, society, culture, and foreign power
and made the United States a more democratic and inclusive nation.
NO: Peter Clecak contends that the political and cultural revolu
tionaries of the 1960s failed to revolutionize themselves or Ameri
can society and quickly discovered that, without a clear program,
viable organizations, or a significant constituency, they were essen
tially powerless against the prevailing social order.
In the summer of 1960, a University of Michigan undergraduate named
Tom Hayden, who served as an editor for his campus newspaper, the Michigan
Daily, made a trip to California. He paid a visit to the University of California
361
at Berkeley before making his way to Los Angeles to cover the Democratic
National Convention. In Los Angeles, Hayden was captivated by the idealistic
energy and enthusiasm for change articulated by young Massachusetts Senator
John Kennedy, who became the Democratic Party's nominee for president of
the United States. Only a few months before, Hayden had joined with a hand
ful of his campus associates in Ann Arbor to resurrect an almost defunct stu
dent organization-the Student League for Industrial Democracy-that traced
its roots to an early twentieth-century student group founded by the Socialist
writer Upton Sinclair. Changing the name of their organization to Students for
a Democratic Society, these young campus activists established connections
with participants of the ongoing college student sit-ins, whom they admired
for the ferocity of their commitment to eliminating segregation in southern
public accomm.
Review of International Studies (2007), 33, 3–24 Copyright B.docxmichael591
Review of International Studies (2007), 33, 3–24 Copyright � British International Studies Association
doi:10.1017/S0260210507007371
Introduction
Still critical after all these years? The past,
present and future of Critical Theory in
International Relations
NICHOLAS RENGGER AND BEN THIRKELL-WHITE*
Twenty-five years ago, theoretical reflection on International Relations (IR) was
dominated by three broad discourses. In the United States the behavioural revolution
of the 1950s and 1960s had helped to create a field that was heavily influenced by
various assumptions allegedly derived from the natural sciences. Of course, variety
existed within the behaviourist camp. Some preferred the heavily quantitative
approach that had become especially influential in the 1960s, while others were
exploring the burgeoning literature of rational and public choice, derived from the
game theoretic approaches pioneered at the RAND corporation. Perhaps the most
influential theoretical voice of the late 1970s, Kenneth Waltz, chose neither; instead he
developed his Theory of International Politics around an austere conception of parsi-
mony and systems derived from his reading in contemporary philosophy of science.1
These positivist methods were adopted not just in the United States but also in
Europe, Asia and the UK. But in Britain a second, older approach, more influenced
by history, law and by philosophy was still widely admired. The ‘classical approach’
to international theory had yet to formally emerge into the ‘English School’ but many
of its texts had been written and it was certainly a force to be reckoned with.2
* The authors would like to thank all the contributors to this special issue, including our two referees.
We would also like to thank Kate Schick for comments on drafts and broader discussion of the
subject matter.
1 Discussions of the development and character of so-called ‘positivist’ IR are something of a drug on
the market. Many of them, of course, treat IR and political science as virtually interchangeable. For
discussions of the rise of ‘positivist’ political science, see: Bernard Crick, The American Science of
Politics (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1960). Klaus Knorr and
James Rosenau (eds.), Contending Approaches to International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1969) highlight the emergence of what might be termed ‘classical’ behaviouralist
approaches. The growing diversity of the field can be seen in K. J. Holsti, The Dividing Discipline
(London; Allen and Unwin, 1985) and the debates between positivism and its critics traced ably in
the introduction to Steve Smith, Ken Booth and Marysia Zalewski (eds.), International Theory;
Positivism, and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Waltz’s move from a
traditional to a much more scientific mode of theory is found, of course, in Theory of International
Politics (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1979).
2 The exhaustive (an.
CHARLES W. CHESNUTT LIBRARY ELECTRONIC RESERVE COLLECTI.docxbissacr
CHARLES W. CHESNUTT LIBRARY
ELECTRONIC RESERVE COLLECTION
The Electronic Reserve Collection is a service for FSU students, faculty, and staff.
Access to the collection is by professor’s name or course number only.
The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making
of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Under certain conditions
specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other
reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction not
be “used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research.” If a user
makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of
“fair use,” that user may be liable for copyright infringement. The Chesnutt Library
reserves the right to refuse to accept an electronic reserve request, if, in its judgment,
fulfillment of the request would involve violation of copyright law.
Robert C. Williams
During the tenth decade of his unusually eventful and scholarly life, the
Afro-American thinker William Edward Burghardt DuBois (1868-1963) ut-
tered insightful and prophetic words which summarized his view of American..- .-.._
social reality:
Government is for the people’s progress and not for the comfort of an
aristocracy. The object of industry is the welfare of the workers and not
the wealth of the owners. The object of civilization is the cultural
progress of the mass of workers and not merely of the intellectual elite.
(from a speech to the world over
delivered in Peking, China, on his
n i n e t y - f i r s t b i r t h d a y , 1 9 5 9 )
No universal selfishness can bring social good to all . . [or] restore
democracy in [the USA] . . . [the path of social progress in America]
will call for:
1. Public ownership of natural resources and of all capital.
2 . P u b l i c c o n t r o l o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .
3. Abolition of poverty and limitation of personal income.
4. No exploitation of labor.
5. Social medicine, with hospitalization and care of the old.
6. Free education for all.
7. Training for jobs and jobs for all.
8 . D i s c i p l i n e f o r g r o w t h a n d r e f o r m .
9. Freedom under law.
10. No dogmatic religion.
(from letter of application for membership in
t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y o f t h e U S A , 1 9 6 1 )
In this all too brief essay I will not attempt to challenge the above as-
sertions since I regard them as well-founded. Instead, I will argue that the
writings of DuBois support the above observations as characteristic of his
evolving social philosophy. His views, as expressed above, are substantiated
in at least two ways. First, they relate to the realities of politics and social
change/stratification which he repeatedly experienced in twentieth century
America. Second, they convey his sense---expressed in numerous wa.
Due April 16, 2020The final research paper for this class is.docxastonrenna
Due April 16, 2020
The final research paper for this class is your opportunity to tie together you years here at FIU as an international relations student with what has been covered in this course. The topic is up to you to decide. A good topic will engage the course literature and lectures. A good method for devising a research topic will be to reflect on areas of knowledge you have built up while at FIU and begin to re-examine those topics through the fundamental literature we have covered in this course. In order to avoid restricting your creativity, the final paper will not have a page limit. You will be expected to fully engage your topic, research question, and address all the issues in that area of international relations. You can choose your own topic about an historical or current event or person as seen from the perspective of a philosopher. For example, what would Plato have said about the election of President Trump? How would Arendt have understood the popular hysteria leading to the Rwandan Genocide?
This paper and the final should be formatted to be double-spaced, 1 inch margin, and 12 font.
You will locate 4-6 sources that are important for understanding your topic and following the citation of your chosen source there will be 1-3 sentences explaining how/why this source will support your topic. Only peer reviewed journals and/or university press books are acceptable. Some popular journals like Newsweek or the Economist could be used. You must also include one class reading in your annotated bibliography.
ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT
TIMOTHY J. LOMPERIS
Saint Louis University
S cholars of Westem political thought have .not dis-puted the fact that there is a rich body of political thought in Asia. They lmve just not bothered to
incorporate it into their corpus. This chapter seeks to pro-
vide long-overdue recognition to this body of thought by
calling attention to the fact that despite its heavy religious
content (until modern times), the encounter with political
ideas in Asia is just as profound as it is in the West. In fact,
since these ideas in Asia are heavily fertilized by their
Western colonial legacy, the West has much to learn about
itself from these Asian borders to the West's material and
intellectual reach.
In this presentation of Asian political thought, what will
emerge is that the such central ideas as democracy,ji-eedom,
and equality were forn1ed in a historical context different
from the West. In the West, these ideas were expressed and
then refined through a prism of small city-states in Greece,
the universal empire of Rome, the subsequent collapse of this
imperium politically but its persistence intellectually in the
Thomist medieval synthesis, the smashing fem1ent (both
intellectually and institutionally) of the Renaissance and the
Reformation, and the birth of the modern nation-state in
the twin crucibles of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and
the French Revolution (1789-1795). ...
Due April 16, 2020The final research paper for this class is.docxmadlynplamondon
Due April 16, 2020
The final research paper for this class is your opportunity to tie together you years here at FIU as an international relations student with what has been covered in this course. The topic is up to you to decide. A good topic will engage the course literature and lectures. A good method for devising a research topic will be to reflect on areas of knowledge you have built up while at FIU and begin to re-examine those topics through the fundamental literature we have covered in this course. In order to avoid restricting your creativity, the final paper will not have a page limit. You will be expected to fully engage your topic, research question, and address all the issues in that area of international relations. You can choose your own topic about an historical or current event or person as seen from the perspective of a philosopher. For example, what would Plato have said about the election of President Trump? How would Arendt have understood the popular hysteria leading to the Rwandan Genocide?
This paper and the final should be formatted to be double-spaced, 1 inch margin, and 12 font.
You will locate 4-6 sources that are important for understanding your topic and following the citation of your chosen source there will be 1-3 sentences explaining how/why this source will support your topic. Only peer reviewed journals and/or university press books are acceptable. Some popular journals like Newsweek or the Economist could be used. You must also include one class reading in your annotated bibliography.
ASIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT
TIMOTHY J. LOMPERIS
Saint Louis University
S cholars of Westem political thought have .not dis-puted the fact that there is a rich body of political thought in Asia. They lmve just not bothered to
incorporate it into their corpus. This chapter seeks to pro-
vide long-overdue recognition to this body of thought by
calling attention to the fact that despite its heavy religious
content (until modern times), the encounter with political
ideas in Asia is just as profound as it is in the West. In fact,
since these ideas in Asia are heavily fertilized by their
Western colonial legacy, the West has much to learn about
itself from these Asian borders to the West's material and
intellectual reach.
In this presentation of Asian political thought, what will
emerge is that the such central ideas as democracy,ji-eedom,
and equality were forn1ed in a historical context different
from the West. In the West, these ideas were expressed and
then refined through a prism of small city-states in Greece,
the universal empire of Rome, the subsequent collapse of this
imperium politically but its persistence intellectually in the
Thomist medieval synthesis, the smashing fem1ent (both
intellectually and institutionally) of the Renaissance and the
Reformation, and the birth of the modern nation-state in
the twin crucibles of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and
the French Revolution (1789-1795). ...
002 Essay Abstract Example ~ Thatsnotus. How To Write An Abstract For An Essay - How To Write A Great Essay .... writing an abstract for an essay. Abstract Essay Topics. Thesis Abstract Examples - Thesis Title Ideas for College. 016 What Is Art Essay Example ~ Thatsnotus. PPT - Techniques & Research in Music Education PowerPoint Presentation .... 002 Writing Satirical Essay P1 ~ Thatsnotus. 001 Abstract Essay Research Paper Sample ~ Thatsnotus. ⭐ Abstract topics to write about. How to Write an Abstract (with .... 004 Essay Example Philosophy Topics Future Teachers Of Education .... Opinion Essay Topics. Kymaro Health & Beauty. Ap Essay Questions For Jane Eyre | PDF. Research Paper Abstract | Writing Help, Outline Example, Paper Topics. example of an essay abstract - World Social Media Mainstreet. Abstract Essay Topics | Essay on Abstract Topics | Hitbullseye.
vo_l. -, 19_6!-1963; and Foreign Relations of the United Sta.docxjolleybendicty
vo_l. ?<-, 19_6!-1963; and Foreign Relations of the United States, "Cuban
Missile Cnsis and Aftermath," vol. XI, 1961-1963. See www.state.gov/
Docume~ts Rel~tin~ to American Foreign Policy: The Cuban Missile Crisis is a
website mam~amed by Mount Holyoke College. The collection includes
d~c~men~s: lmks, and other historical materials concerning the Cuban
missile cnsis. See www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/cuba.htm
360
ISSUE /0 ... ~
~
Did the Activism of the 1960s
Produce a Better Nation?
YES: Terry H. Anderson, from The Sea Change (Oxford University
Press, 1995)
NO: Peter Clecak, from The New Left (Harper & Row, 1973)
Learning Outcomes
After reading this issue, you should be able to:
• Define the term "New Left" as it applies to the 1960s.
• Summarize the main goals of the Port Huron Statement.
• Evaluate the legacy of the Students for a Democratic Society
(SDS) and the Youth International Party ("Yippies").
• Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the New Left critique
of American society.
• Compare and contrast the political and cultural rebels of the
1960s in terms of their leadership, goals, strategies, and level
of success in affecting change.
ISSUE SUMMARY
YES: Terry H. Anderson concludes that the activism of the 1960s in
spired citizens of all types to demand changes that produced a trans
formation of American politics, society, culture, and foreign power
and made the United States a more democratic and inclusive nation.
NO: Peter Clecak contends that the political and cultural revolu
tionaries of the 1960s failed to revolutionize themselves or Ameri
can society and quickly discovered that, without a clear program,
viable organizations, or a significant constituency, they were essen
tially powerless against the prevailing social order.
In the summer of 1960, a University of Michigan undergraduate named
Tom Hayden, who served as an editor for his campus newspaper, the Michigan
Daily, made a trip to California. He paid a visit to the University of California
361
at Berkeley before making his way to Los Angeles to cover the Democratic
National Convention. In Los Angeles, Hayden was captivated by the idealistic
energy and enthusiasm for change articulated by young Massachusetts Senator
John Kennedy, who became the Democratic Party's nominee for president of
the United States. Only a few months before, Hayden had joined with a hand
ful of his campus associates in Ann Arbor to resurrect an almost defunct stu
dent organization-the Student League for Industrial Democracy-that traced
its roots to an early twentieth-century student group founded by the Socialist
writer Upton Sinclair. Changing the name of their organization to Students for
a Democratic Society, these young campus activists established connections
with participants of the ongoing college student sit-ins, whom they admired
for the ferocity of their commitment to eliminating segregation in southern
public accomm.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
2. State University, resonance theory had been rehabilitated. Yet,
the history of the campaign and the injustices it entailed were
not discussed in the openthe Party did not welcome
conversations about its past mistakes. I remember hearing parts
of the story, narrated under someone’s breath at a party after
copious amounts of alcohol had loosened a tongue.
Fast forward to 2021another century. The Cold War is a
distant memory and the country shown on my birth certificate
and school and university diplomas, the USSR, is no longer on
the map. But I find myself experiencing its legacy some
thousands of miles to the west, as if I am living in an Orwellian
twilight zone. I witness ever-increasing attempts to subject
science and education to ideological control and censorship.
Just as in Soviet times, the censorship is being justified by the
greater good. Whereas in 1950, the greater good was advancing
the World Revolution (in the USSR; in the USA the greater
good meant fighting Communism), in 2021 the greater good is
“Social Justice” (the capitalization is important: “Social Justice”
is a specific ideology, with goals that have little in common
with what lower-case “social justice” means in plain
English).10−12
As in the USSR, the censorship is enthusiasti-
cally imposed also from the bottom, by members of the
scientific community, whose motives vary from naive idealism
to cynical power-grabbing.
Just as during the time of the Great Terror,5,13
dangerous
conspiracies and plots against the World Revolution were seen
everywhere, from illustrations in children’s books to hairstyles
and fashions; today we are told that racism, patriarchy,
misogyny, and other reprehensible ideas are encoded in
scientific terms, names of equations, and in plain English
words. We are told that in order to build a better world and to
address societal inequalities, we need to purge our literature of
the names of people whose personal records are not up to the
high standards of the self-anointed bearers of the new truth,
the Elect.11
We are told that we need to rewrite our syllabi and
change the way we teach and speak.14,15
As an example of political censorship and cancel culture,
consider a recent viewpoint16
discussing the centuries-old
tradition of attaching names to scientific concepts and
discoveries (Archimede’s Principle, Newton’s Laws of Motion,
Schrödinger equation, Curie Law, etc.). The authors call for
vigilance in naming discoveries and assert that “basing the
name with inclusive priorities may provide a path to a richer,
deeper, and more robust understanding of the science and its
advancement.” Really? On what empirical grounds is this
based? History teaches us the opposite: the outcomes of the
merit-based science of liberal, pluralistic societies are vastly
superior to those of the ideologically controlled science of the
USSR and other totalitarian regimes.17
The authors call for
removing the names of people who “crossed the line” of moral
or ethical standards. Examples16
include Fritz Haber, Peter
Debye, and William Shockley, but the list could have been
easily extended to include Stark (defended expulsion of Jews
from German institutions),18
Heisenberg (led Germany’s
nuclear weapons program),19
and Schrödinger (had romantic
relationships with under-age girls).19
Indeed, learned societies
are now devoting considerable effort to such renaming
campaignsamong the most-recent cancellations is the
renaming of the Fisher Prize by the Evolution Society, despite
well-argued opposition by 10 past presidents and vice-
presidents of the society.20
There is no doubt that many famous scientists had views or
engaged in behaviors that, by today’s standards, are not
acceptable.21
Their scientific legacies are often mixed; for
example, Fritz Haber is both the father of modern chemical
warfare and the man whose development of nitrogen fixation is
feeding the planet.22
Scientists are not saints.21
They are
human beings born into places and times they did not choose.
Just as their fellow human beings do, each finds his or her way
though the circumstances of their lives, such as totalitarian
regimes, world wars, and revolutions. Sometimes they made
the right choices, sometimes they erred. Some paid dearly for
their mistakes. Haber22
was an avid German patriot, to the
extent that he actively developed chemical weapons in order to
provide Germany with military advantage. Yet, his motherland
rejected him because he was a Jew. He was barely able to
escape Germany, and part of his extended family perished in
the concentration camps. As eloquently stated by Stern in his
essay,22
are we really so morally superior that we can “judge a
Figure 1. Soviet history was constantly revised to keep up with the current party line. Historic photographs were routinely airbrushed and
textbooks rewritten to obliterate the canceled.1
Left: Lenin speaking in Moscow to Red Army soldiers in 1920, with Leon Trotsky and Lev
Kamenev standing to his left side, on the steps to the right. Right: Same scene, with Trotsky and Kamenev airbrushed out, after they were canceled.
Once the heroes of the Revolution, they had become traitors and enemies of the people. (Photograph May 5, 1920, by G. P. Goldshtein. Part of the
David King Collection. Purchased from David King by Tate Archive 2016. Photo copyright Tate.)
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5372
3. life by one disastrous deformation, which in some ways
epitomized his and his country’s worst faults?”
Soviet history is full of examples of patriotic scientists who
were imprisoned and murdered by the regime while
proclaiming their unconditional loyalty to the World
Revolutionone such tragic figure was Hans Hellmann, who
fled Germany in 1933 (because of his Jewish wife) and, despite
multiple warnings, came to Russia (because he believed in the
socialist ideals), only to be executed by the Soviet regime as an
enemy of the people in 1938.23
Some famous scientists were brave dissidents, and some
were conformists and opportunists. Should we judge their
scientific contributions by their political standing, the extent to
which they collaborated with repressive regimes, or by how
wholesome their personal lives were? The authors of the
viewpoint16
go as far as to suggest that we should use names of
scientific discoveries and institutions as a vehicle to promote
ideologythat is, as a propaganda toolas was done by the
Soviet, Nazi, and Maoist regimes.
The intersection of science, morality, and ideology has been
studied by many scholars and historians. History provides
ample evidence that totalitarian censorship of science is
harmful to the progress and well-being of societies. Merton’s
norms of science prescribe a clear separation between science
and morality.24
Particularly relevant is Merton’s principle of
universality, which states that claims to truth are evaluated in
terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on the basis
of race, class, gender, religion, or nationality.24
Simply put, we
should evaluate, reward, and acknowledge scientific contribu-
tions strictly on the basis of their intellectual merit and not on
the basis of personal traits of the scientists or a current political
agenda.
Conversations about the history of science and the
complexity of its social and ethical aspects can enrich our
lives and should be a welcome addition to science curricula.
The history of science can teach us to appreciate the
complexity of the world and humanity. It can also help us to
navigate urgent contemporary issues.25
Censorship and
cancellation will not make us smarter, will not lead to better
science, and will not help the next generation of scientists to
make better choices.
The authors of the viewpoint16
acknowledge historic
complexities and the fact that moral and ethical standards
change with time. They backed off Debye’s cancellation,
quoting the decisions of investigative committees that
concluded that Debye did not cross the line. However, they
demand that the “Shockley−Queisser limit” be renamed. They
call for Shockley’s cancellation as punishment for his abhorrent
views on issues far outside his domain of expertise, such as
race, gender, and IQ. If, for the sake of argument, we divorce
ourselves from the charged political content of Shockley’s
publications on these topics, we can compare his minimal
scholarly contribution in this domain to Pauling’s vitamin C
debacle.26
Should we cancel Pauling for overstepping the
domain of his competence and making medically dangerous
claims? Which one is the greater misconductpublishing a
paper with eugenic content or promoting vitamin C as a cure
for cancer? Note that in the case of both Pauling and Shockley,
the Mertonian principle of organized skepticism24
has already
taken care of effectively separating the wheat from the chaff:
while Shockley’s detailed balance paper (ref 11 in the
viewpoint) is cited almost 7000 times, his paper on race and
IQ (ref 12 in the viewpoint) has a grand total of 15 citations.
Digging deeper into the Shockley case, many of his
biographers attribute his well-documented antisocial traits
and behaviors (social withdrawal and paranoia) to a mental
disorder and describe him as a high-functioning autist. In his
book The Gene, Mukherjee uses Shockley to illustrate the
ethical conundrums of gene editing,27
by pointing out that the
same combination of genes can be both “genius-enabling” and
“disease-enabling”. What if Shockley’s deplorable views were
the result of his mental disorder? Should we cancel him
anyway? I think we should discuss his mixed legacy and learn
from his complicated story, in the same way we can learn from
Fritz Haber’s and others’. These stories can teach us about the
complexity of the world and of human minds, the importance
of tolerance and empathy. And we should leave the Shockley−
Queisser limit (and other named discoveries and equations)
alone.
The issue of science moralization and censorship is older
than 20th century totalitarian regimes. For example, Giordano
Bruno was canceled (burned at the stake in 1600) because his
cosmological views were considered to be a threat to the
dominant ideology. The guardians of the truth, his prosecutors,
“had the desire to serve freedom and promote the common
good”.28
A century later, Leeuwenhoek self-censored his
studies and reports for offensive content (observations of
spermatozoa in semen).29,30
In 1911, Marie Curie was
ostracized for immoral behavioran affair with a married
man (Langevin) following the tragic death of her husband
Pierre Curie. The chair of the Nobel Prize committee, Svante
Arrhenius, wrote to her advising that she not attend the official
ceremony for her Nobel Prize in Chemistry in view of her
questionable moral standing. Curie replied that she would be
present at the ceremony, becase “the prize has been given to
her for her discovery of polonium and radium” and that “there
is no relation between her scientific work and the facts of her
private life”.31
Today we regard this attempt to cancel Curie on
the grounds of her moral impurity as utterly absurd, yet we
continue to witness the intrusion of moral arguments into the
scientific domain.31
Examples of past cancellations done in the name of
maintaining moral purity (as understood at the time) provide
a useful context for today’s struggle between free speech and
Figure 2. Fourth-year chemistry students from Moscow State
University (the author is on the right) enjoying a short break in the
potato fields during mandatory farm labor, ca. 1987. The sticks were
used as aids for separating potatoes from the mud.
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4. cancel culture. In 1952, Alan Turing was canceled for being
gay. After he was convicted for “gross indecency” and
subjected to chemical castration, he lost his consultancy job
for the British intelligence agency, despite his vital contribu-
tions to the war effort, and was denied entry to the United
States. About the same time, the University of Minnesota
revoked an offer from Michael McConnell for his intent to
marry another man.32
McConnell sued, but lost, with the judge
decrying same-sex marriage a “socially repugnant concept,”
incompatible with holding a university position.
Today’s censorship does not stop at purging the scientific
vocabulary of the names of scientists who “crossed the line” or
fail the ideological litmus tests of the Elect.11
In some
schools,33,34
physics classes no longer teach “Newton’s Laws”,
but “the three fundamental laws of physics”. Why was Newton
canceled? Because he was white, and the new ideology10,12,15
calls for “decentering whiteness” and “decolonizing” the
curriculum. A comment in Nature35
calls for replacing the
accepted technical term “quantum supremacy” by “quantum
advantage”. The authors regard the English word “supremacy”
as “violent” and equate its usage with promoting racism and
colonialism. They also warn us about “damage” inflicted by
using such terms as “conquest”. I assume “divide-and-conquer”
will have to go too. Remarkably, this Soviet-style ghost-chasing
gains traction. In partnership with their Diversity, Equity, and
Inclusion taskforce, the Information and Technology Services
Department of the University of Michigan set out to purge the
language within the university and without (by imposing
restrictions on university vendors) from such hurtful and racist
terms as “picnic”, “brown bag lunch”, “black-and-white
thinking”, “master password”, “dummy variable”, “disabled
system”, “grandfathered account”, “strawman argument”, and
“long time no see”.36
“The list is not exhaustive and will
continue to grow”, warns the memo. Indeed, new words are
canceled every dayI just learned that the word “normal” will
no longer be used on Dove soap packaging because “it makes
most people feel excluded”37
(emphasis mine; see Figure 3).
Do words have life and power of their own? Can they really
cause injury? Do they carry hidden messages? The ideology
claims so and encourages us all to be on the constant lookout
for offenses. If you are not sure when you should be
offendedcheck out the list of microagressionsa quick
google search can deliver plenty of official documents from
serious institutions that, with a few exceptions, sound like a
sketch for the next Borat movie.38
If nothing fits the bill, you
can always find malice in the sounds of a foreign language. At
the University of Southern California, a professor was recently
suspended because students claimed to have been offended by
the sounds of Chinese words used to illustrate the concept of
filler words in a communications class.39,40
Why did I devote a considerable amount of my time to
writing this essay? After all, I am no fan of Shockley; his
eugenic views disgust me. Notwithstanding his monumental
contributions to one of the most pressing problems we face
harnessing solar energyI would not want to sit next to him at
a dinner party. Yet, the term “Shockley−Queisser limit” elicits
no emotional response in me. Neither does “Stark effect”,
“Haber−Bosch process”, or “Debye units”. To most scientists,
these are convenient labels, which remind us that the
cathedrals of science are built by mere mortals,21
and not
some deeply meaningful symbols of reverence. So why should
we not humor those who claim to feel differently16
and rename
everything in sight? After all, renaming equations is even easier
than renaming cities, buildings, or landmarks.
The answer is simple: our future is at stake. As a community,
we face an important choice. We can succumb to extreme left
ideology and spend the rest of our lives ghost-chasing and
witch-hunting, rewriting history, politicizing science, redefining
elements of language, and turning STEM (science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics) education into a farce.41−44
Or
we can uphold a key principle of democratic societythe free
and uncensored exchange of ideasand continue our core
mission, the pursuit of truth, focusing attention on solving real,
important problems of humankind.
The lessons of history are numerous and unambiguous.17
Despite vast natural and human resources, the USSR lost the
Cold War, crumbled, and collapsed. Interestingly, even the
leaders of the most repressive regimes were able to understand,
to some extent, the weakness of totalitarian science. For
example, in the midst of the Great Terror,5,13
Kapitsa and Ioffe
were able to convince Stalin about the importance of physics to
military and technological advantage, to the extent that he
reversed some arrests; for example, Fock and Landau were set
free (however, an estimated ∼10% of physicists perished
during this time17
). In the late forties, after nuclear physicists
explained that without relativity theory there will be no nuclear
bomb, Stalin rolled back the planned campaign against physics
and instructed Beria to give physicists some space; this led to
significant advances and accomplishments by Soviet scientists
in several domains. However, neither Stalin nor the subsequent
Soviet leaders were able to let go of the controls completely.
Government control over science turned out to be a grand
failure, and the attempts to patch the widening gap between
the West and the East by espionage did not help.17
Today
Russia is hopelessly behind the West, in both technology and
quality of life. The book Totalitarian Science and Technology
provides many more examples of such failed experiments.17
Today, STEM holds the key to solving problems far more
important than the nuclear arms race: reversing climate
change, fighting global hunger and poverty, controlling
pandemics, and harnessing the power of new technologies
(quantum computing, bioengineering, and renewable energy)
for the benefit of humanity.
Figure 3. Headline of the New York Times article37
from 2021-03-13.
The word “normal” will be removed from more than 200 beauty
products. “The changes were long overdue and ‘completely
necessary’..., said Ateh Jewel, a beauty journalist and an advisory
board member of the British Beauty Council.”37
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5. Normalizing ideological intrusion into science and abandon-
ing Mertonian principles24
will cost us dearly. We cannot
afford it.
Anna I. Krylov orcid.org/0000-0001-6788-5016
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Complete contact information is available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c01475
Notes
Views expressed in this Viewpoint are those of the author and
not necessarily the views of the ACS.
The author declares no competing financial interest.
■ REFERENCES
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made the truth disappear. The New Yorker; 2018; https://www.
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(3) Hughesovka and the new Russia: Gwin Alf Williams in Donetsk.
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(5) Solzhenitsyn, A. I. The Gulag Archipelago; 1973.
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(7) Pechenkin, A. A. The 1949−1951 anti-resonance campaign in
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(8) Graham, L. R. A Soviet Marxist view of structural chemistry: The
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(9) Pauling’s theory of resonance: A Soviet controversy. https://
paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/03/26/paulings-theory-of-
resonance-a-soviet-controversy. The Pauling blog, 2009. As Pauling
wrote in his letter to Frank Aydelotte in 1951: “As to the Russian
scientists and the scientific controversies, I must say that I have great
difficulty in understanding what is happening. The most likely
explanation seems to be that some of the Russian scientists are taking
advantage of the political situation to advance themselves at the
expense of their colleagues. Others are then drawn into the
controversy, and required by practical considerations to align
themselves with those who say that they are supporting the correct
Marxist position. I have read the Russian articles carefully, and I must
say that I cannot understand the arguments.”
(10) Pluckrose, H.; Lindsay, J. A. Cynical Theories: How Activist
Scholarship Made Everything about Race, Gender, and Identityand
Why This Harms Everybody; Pitchstone Publishing: Durham, NC,
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(11) McWhorter, J. The Elect: The threat to a progressive America
from anti-black anti-racists. Substack, 2021; https://johnmcwhorter.
substack.com/p/the-elect-neoracists-posing-as-antiracists.
(12) Zinsmeister, K. The compound fractures of identity politics.
City Journal, 2021. https://www.city-journal.org/fractures-of-
identity-politics
(13) Wikipedia article about the Great Terror. https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Great_Purge.
(14) Diversity & inclusion syllabus statements at Brown university.
https://www.brown.edu/sheridan/teaching-learning-resources/
inclusive-teaching/statements (accessed 2021-03-21). An example
DEI statement from a course syllabus: “In an ideal world, science
would be objective. However, much of science is subjective and is
historically built on a small subset of privileged voices. I acknowledge
that the readings for this course, including the course reader and BCP
were authored by white men. Furthermore, the course often focuses
on historically important neuroscience experiments which were
mostly conducted by white men.”
(15) Antiracist pedagogy: YALE Poorvu Center for teaching and
learning, https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/Antiracist-Pedagogy (ac-
cessed 2021-03-21). Recommendations include “decentering White-
ness in the course content” and “creating assessments that enable
students to demonstrate different knowledge and ways of knowing”.
Examples of good practices include “Yale Associate Professor of
Computer Science ... includes discussions about the discriminatory
racial history of computer science and mathematics as a way to help
students understand the politics and power of fields that are often
thought of as being objective.”
(16) Ehrler, B.; Hutter, E. M.; Berry, J. J. The complicated morality
of named inventions. ACS Energy Lett. 2021, 6, 565.
(17) Josephson, P. R. Totalitarian Science and Technology; Humanity
Books: Amherst, NY, 2005.
(18) Stark, J. The attitude of the German government towards
science. Nature 1934, 133, 614.
(19) Jones, S. The Quantum Ten: A Story of Passion, Tragedy,
Ambition, and Science; Thomas Allen Publishers: Toronto, 2008.
(20) Evolution society renames Fisher Prize; some of us wrote a
letter in response. https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2021/04/02/
evolution-society-renames-fisher-prize-a-letter-some-of-us-wrote-in-
response/ (Post on Jerry Coyne’s blog), 2021.
(21) Coffey, P. Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries
That Made Modern Chemistry; Oxford University Press, Inc., 2008.
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org/wiki/Robert_K._Merton. Merton defined a set of ideals that he
considered to be integral to the goals and methods of science and
binding to scientists. The Mertonian norms of science, which are
often referred to by the acronym “CUDOS”, include the following: (i)
Communism: the common ownership of scientific discoveries,
according to which scientists give up intellectual property in exchange
for recognition; (ii) Universalism: according to which claims to truth
are evaluated in terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on
the basis of race, class, gender, religion, or nationality; (iii)
Disinterestedness: according to which scientists are rewarded for
acting in ways that outwardly appear to be self-less; and (iv)
Organized Skepticism: all ideas must be tested and are subject to
rigorous, structured community scrutiny.
(25) Harari, Y. N. 21 Lessons for the 21st Century; Random House:
New York, 2018.
(26) Wikipedia article about Linus Pauling. https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Linus_Pauling. See “Medical research and vitamin C
advocacy” section.
(27) Mukherjee, S. The gene: An intimate history; Scribner: New
York, 2017.
(28) Wikipedia article about Giordano Bruno. https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Giordano_Bruno. In 2000, Cardinal Sodano referred to
Bruno’s death as a “sad episode” but defended the Inquisitors who
“had the desire to serve freedom and promote the common good and
did everything possible to save his life”.
(29) Kremer, J. The significance of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek for the
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(30) Poppick, L. The long, winding tale of sperm science.
Smithsonian; 2017;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-
nature/scientists-finally-unravel-mysteries-sperm-180963578. When
Leeuwenhoek wrote to the Royal Society of London about his
discovery of spermatozoa in 1677, he preceded his report with the
following: “If your Lordship should consider that these observations
may disgust or scandalise the learned, I earnestly beg your Lordship to
regard them as private and to publish or destroy them as your
Lordship sees fit.”
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20190320145639758, 2019.
(32) Eckholm, E. The same-sex couple who got a marriage license in
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17/us/the-same-sex-couple-who-got-a-marriage-license-in-1971.html.
(33) Weiss, B. The miseducation of America’s elites. City Journal,
2021. https://www.city-journal.org/the-miseducation-of-americas-
elites
(34) Somerville, E. Isaac Newton latest historical figure swept up in
’decolonisation’ drive. The Telegraph, 2021; https://www.telegraph.
co.uk/news/2021/04/24/isaac-newton-latest-historical-figure-swept-
decolonisation-drive. A draft of “inclusive curriculum development”
at the Sheffield University (UK) states that Dirac, Laplace, Newton,
and Leibniz “could be considered as benefiting from colonial era
activity” and, therefore, should be removed from the engineering
curriculum. “Decolonising the curriculum is an ongoing process which
prompts us to incorporate historically marginalised or suppressed
knowledge into all disciplines...so all our students have the
opportunity to see themselves reflected in what they are being
taught,” said a spokesman of the University.
(35) Palacios-Berraquero, C.; Mueck, L.; Persaud, D. M. We will
take ’quantum advantage’. Nature 2019, 576, 213.
(36) Executive summary by “Words Matter” taskforce. https://drive.
google.com/file/d/11a8cUt1SCfIxQRBZk_TnRYM5ltENL7LI/view,
2020.
(37) Taylor, D. B. Maker of Dove soap will drop the word ’normal’
from beauty products; New York Times, 2021. https://www.nytimes.
com/2021/03/09/business/unilever-normal-positive-beauty.html.
(38) Examples of microagressions and recommendations on
inclusive language from University of California, University of
Colorado, University of Minnesota, and University of Michigan;
retrieved from internet. https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/
1n6jB4oTDnrPqqKNVAHpA_MNwbK3TBGg; Link to exhibits,
2020.
(39) Soave, R. USC suspended a communications professor for
saying a Chinese word that sounds like a racial slur; Reason, 2020;
https://reason.com/2020/09/03/usc-greg-patton-chinese-word-
offended-students.
(40) Volokh, E. USC communications professor “on a short-term
break” for giving Chinese word “neige” as example; The Volokh
Conspiracy, Reason, 2020. https://reason.com/volokh/2020/09/03/
usc-communications-professor-on-a-short-term-break-for-giving-
chinese-word-neige-as-example.
(41) A pathway to equitable math instruction: Resources and
guidance to support Black, LatinX, and Multilingual students to thrive
in grades 6−8. https://equitablemath.org. From the website: “A
Pathway to Equitable Math Instruction is an actionable toolkit
designed to support equitable access to math standards for Black,
Latinx, and multilingual students in grades 6−8. We invite school
leaders, educators, and advocates to join us at these virtual
opportunities to dive deeper into each of the toolkit strides.” The
program, which is supported by numerous educational boards and
foundations, including Los Angeles County Office of Education and
Bill and Melinda Gates foundation, calls to “dismantle white
supremacy” in the classroom, which manifests itself by “the focus is
on getting the ‘right’ answer” and asking students “to show their
work”.
(42) McWhorter, J. Is it racist to expect black kids to do math for
real? https://johnmcwhorter.substack.com/p/is-it-racist-to-expect-
black-kids; It Bears Mentioning, 2021.
(43) Klainerman, S. There is no such thing as “white” math.
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(44) Deift, P.; Jitomirskaya, S.; Klainerman, S. America is flunking
math. Persuasion, 2021. https://www.persuasion.community/p/why-
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