This document discusses softening of fabrics, which modifies surface properties to improve comfort, wear, and performance. Textiles undergo processes that make surfaces harsh, so softening is needed. Mechanical methods like breaking, calendering, and raising can soften fabrics. Chemical methods use softeners like cationic agents that coat fibers and prevent static cling while making fabrics softer. Cationic softeners orient positively on fibers' negatively charged surfaces. Testing evaluates softening effectiveness by measuring static cling, stiffness, and yellowing. Softened fabrics have benefits like improved lubricity, properties, and handle.

2. WHAT IS SOFTENING?
Softening is generally defined as the process of modifying the
handle or feel of textiles for better comfort, better wear or
performance under defined conditions of use. It is a phenomenon
associated with the modification of surface properties of textiles
described in terms of handle, volume, softness and drape.

3. WHY DO WE NEED FABRIC SOFTENING?
Textiles go under numerous mechanical and chemical processes that
make the surface of the material harsh. For example:-
● Removal of natural oil and waxes by scouring and bleaching.
● Resin finishing of textiles also imparts some degree of harshness
● Soaping of textile material also adds harsh feeling to the fabric

4. WAYS TO ACHIEVE FABRIC SOFTENING-
MECHANICAL METHODS :
● By Breaking machine
● By calendering
● By Decatising
● By Raising

5. BY BREAKING MACHINE
● When a fabric is dried under tension the firmness produced can thereby can be
removed by running it through a machine which can distort sufficiently. This
machine is called Scroll roller breaking machine.
● Fabrics with stiff handle are passed over and under the rapidly rotating scroll
rollers and thereby softened.
BY CALENDERING
● Fabric is compressed by passing it b/w 2 or more rollers under control
conditions of time, temperature, pressure whereby the fabric is softened due to
bending under pressure.
● This treatment breaks down fibre rigidity.

6. BY DECATISING
● In this process the fabric is wound on a perforated metal rollers and steam is
blown through the inside of the central rollers and its perforation so that it passes
outward from the fabric. After 1 or 2min the steam is expelled by blowing
compressed air through the fabric.
● The fabric is then taken out and wound on the second roller with the inside layer
out and the process is repeated.
BY RAISING
● Raising machines with rollers covered with wire carding cloth are used. Both
single and double acting raising machines are used to produce pile fabrics.
● The production of the pile surface can make the fabric exceptionally soft
depending on the length of the pile.

7. CHEMICAL METHODS TO ACHIEVE FABRIC
SOFTENING
Fabric softeners (also called fabric conditioners) are used to prevent
static cling and make fabrics softer. Softening agents are applied to
textile to improve their hand and drape.
Fabric softeners work by coating the surface of the cloth fibres with a
thin layer of chemicals; these chemicals have lubricant properties and
are electrically conductive, thus making the fibres feel smoother and
preventing buildup of static electricity. Softening treatments are based
on the surface application of oils, fats and waxes, i.e., long chain fatty
acids.

8. CHEMICAL METHODS FOR SOFTENING
● On the basis of charge
a. Anionic
b. Cationic
c. Non-ionic
d. Amphoteric
● Other methods
a. Silicone softeners
b. Polyethylene softeners

9. ON THE BASIS OF CHARGE
1. ANIONIC SOFTENER:
These orient themselves with their negatively charged ends repelled
away from the negatively charged fibre surface. They can be washed
off easily, and provide strong anti-static effect.
2. CATIONIC SOFTENER:
These do not get washed off easily. These orient themselves with their
positively charged ends towards the negatively charged fibre. It has
carbon chains that provide excellent softening and lubricity.

10. ON THE BASIS OF CHARGE
3. NON-IONIC SOFTENER:
The orientation of non-ionic softeners depends on the nature of the fibre surface –
the hydrophilic portion of the softener is attracted to hydrophilic surfaces and the
hydrophobic end is attracted to hydrophobic surfaces. For example- waxes,
silicone softeners etc.
4. AMPHOTERIC SOFTENERS-
These softeners contain one or more long alkyl chain having both anion and cation
in itself. In alkaline solution (pH>7), they behave like anionic softener, in acidic
solution (pH<7) they behave like cationic softener and in neutral solution (pH=7)
they behave like non-ionic softener.

11. WHAT ARE CATIONIC SOFTENERS ?
● The softener which ionizes in water and produces cation as the dominating
ion which is responsible for the softening action is called cationic softener.
● The simplest cationic softener are primary secondary and tertiary mono
amines and their salts, formed by neutralization of the amines, usually with
acetic acid.
● Reaction with alkylating agent like methyl chloride and benzyl chloride and
dimethyl sulphate etc converts the insoluble amines into water soluble salts,
which are more active then the original ones.

12. PROPERTIES OF CATIONIC SOFTENERS-
● Cationic softener are widely used on cellulosic materials.
● It has enough affinity and substantively towards cellulosic fibers.
● Its pH lies between 5-6
● Cationic agents become unstable to alkaline media.
● It is soluble in water.
● Cationic salts present in hard water react with softener forming
precipitation.
● Chemically cationic softener is ap amines, amido amines,
imidazoline and quaternary ammonium compounds.

13. MECHANISM OF CATIONIC SOFTENING
● When a quaternary ammonium softener is dissolved in water it ionizes into
hydrophilic head with a negative charge and a hydrophobic part carrying a
positive charge.
● During the softening treatment the negative charge on the fiber surface
attracts the positive tail of the cationic softener. This results in firmly
anchoring of the fabric softener residue on the fiber substance. Somewhat
similar to sheathing the fiber with an oily film.
● This is responsible for obtaining a soft handle and a pliable well lubricated
fiber surface.

14. ● Cationic softeners orient themselves with
their positively-charged end towards the
partially negatively charged fiber (zeta
potential) which creates a hydrophobic
surface.
● Carbon chain that provide the
characteristic excellent softening and
lubricity seen with cationic softener.

15. HOW ARE THEY APPLIED TO FABRIC
1. PAD DRY CALENDER
METHOD
In this method 20-25g/l softener are
taken where pH level is 4-5. The fabric
is then impregnate in to water and the
pickup % is 70-80.
The fabric is then dried at 120-
140degree Celcius for 2-3minutes.
2. EXHAUST METHOD (JIGGER
OR WINCH)
In this method following parameters are
maintained-
Material: liquid - 1:10
Temperature- 45-50 degree celsius
pH - 4-5
Time- 20-30minutes
Americo ac 1000- 1-2%

16. HOW TO TEST EFFECTIVENESS
1. AATCC Test Method 115-1969 Electrostatic Clinging of
Fabrics
2. ASTM-D1388 Standard Test Method for Stiffness of
Fabrics
3. ASTM standard method D 1925-63T to evaluate the
yellowness of the fabric

17. 1. AATCC Test Method 115-1969 Electrostatic Clinging of Fabrics
a. Purpose: This test method evaluates the relative clinging tendency of certain fabrics due to
electrostatic charge generation, and integrates the effect of fabric stiffness with other fabric
parameters which affect the tendency of fabrics to cling.
2. ASTM-D1388 Standard Test Method for Stiffness of Fabrics
a. This test method covers the measurement of stiffness properties of fabrics. Bending length
is measured and flexural rigidity is calculated. Two procedures are provided:-
I. Option A—Cantilever Test, employing the principle of cantilever bending of the fabric
under its own mass.
Ii. Option B—Heart Loop Test, employing the principle of a loop formed in a fabric strip and
hung vertically.

18. 3. ASTM standard method D 1925-63T to evaluate the yellowness of the fabric
a. Amine based cationic softeners may react with free chlorine and form chloramines, which
are yellow in colour. These amines oxidise at higher temperatures to form oxides of
nitrogen, which are also yellow in colour.
b. The Yellowness Index measured by ASTM D 1925 test method checks and evaluates the
fabric samples for this undesirable quality caused by softeners, by testing them at a
spectrophotometer

19. ADVANTAGES OF CATIONIC SOFTENERS
● Cationic softeners increases lubricity of yarn which have positive
effect on wet fastness.
● Cationic softeners minimises the loss in physical property on resin
finished goods.
● Cationic softeners can be used as antistatic agent for loose fibre.
● Improve tear strength, abrasion resistance and sewability.

20. DISADVANTAGES OF CATIONIC SOFTENERS
● Cationic softeners gets precipitated when with anionic compounds.
● May react with residual chlorine from bleach baths
● Adversely affect soil removal properties
● Can cause tendering of sulpher dyed fabrics
● Free amines causes yellowing and may change dye shade or affect
light fastness.

21. FUTURE & TRENDS IN SOFTENING
1. Multifunctional fabric softener formulations are in trend
since the beginning of the millennium. These new
products not only soften clothes, but also:-
a. Improve the ease of ironing
b. Reduce wrinkling in the dryer
c. Provide stain protection

22. FUTURE & TRENDS IN SOFTENING
2. New innovations in delivery
forms and dispensing
devices like the “Downy
Ball” introduced by P&G in
the late 1990s may become
more common.

23. LEARNING OUTCOMES
Softeners have gained great importance in textile industry, almost no piece of textile
leaves the production facilities without being treated with a softener
The softening treatment is to give the textile the desired handle make further
processing easier and improve the handling properties. A nice soft handle is often
the desired criteria for buying a textile and is therefore of most vital for marketing
many textiles.
● It gives the fabric the desired handle ; such as softness smoothness, firmness
etc
● It positively influences the technological properties such as antistatic,
hydrophilic properties , sewability etc.
● It gives synthetic fibers a certain degree of natural feeling and improves the
handling properties through secondary effects ( antiostatic, smoothness,
moisture regulation) etc.

24. REFERENCE
● Chemical finishing of textiles ( wooodhead publishing)
● Principles of textile finishing ( Asim Kumar Roy Chaudhary )
● www.sciencedirect.com
● www.textilefashionstudy.com
● www.textilelearners.net
● www.researchgate.net
● www.researchdyechem.in
● www.aatcc.org Testing Method
● www.document-center.com/standard/show/ASTM-D1388