This document provides an overview of key sociological theories and research methods that students should already be familiar with from prior coursework. It includes: 1) A list of modern and postmodern sociological theories like functionalism, Marxism, interpretivism, feminism, and postmodernism that students need a deeper understanding of. 2) Sample exam questions that could require assessing these theories in relation to topics like modernity, social policy, or objectivity in research. 3) An activity prompting students to review and demonstrate their knowledge of functionalism, Marxism, and key concepts from each. 4) A list of important research methods and considerations that students should already understand

1. A2
Sociology:
SCLY4
[THEORY AND METHODS:
WHAT YOU SHOULD ALREADY
KNOW]

2. A2 Reviewing Sociological Theory and Research Methods
Below you will find a list of key issues you should already know and
understand from AS. If you don’t, now is the time to put that right!
What you should know from AS: Sociological Theory
You should already be familiar with consensus, conflict, structural and
social action theories.
You will need to know these in more detail at A2 therefore; you should
begin by recapping what you already know about the main sociological
theories, fill in any gaps, then build upon this with more in-depth
knowledge and evaluation.
You should also understand the concepts of modernity and post-
modernity in relation to sociological theory.
The main modernist theories are:
Functionalism
Marxism
Interpretivism (Interactionism)
Feminism
Postmodern Theory:
Postmodernism
You will need to know and understand:
The main arguments of each theory
The important writers and what they say
The strengths and weaknesses of each
What each theory says about a range of sociological topics
(education, culture, media, family, crime?) and what research
methods they use.
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3. Evaluation marks will be gained by then being able to criticise each using
the other 4 perspectives. This is crucial at A2 level.
Theory in the SCLY4 Exam
You could have an essay on any area of sociological theory as identified
in the specification. Therefore you must know them all just in case! This
essay is worth 33 marks.
Likely questions could include:
Assess the usefulness of conflict theories in understanding society
today.
Assess the contribution of Functionalist theories and research to our
understanding of society today.
Assess the contribution of feminist perspectives and research to our
understanding of society.
Evaluate how the concepts of modernity and post-modernity have
influenced sociologists’ understanding of society today.
The essays could also be on any of the new A2 topics combining
theory, methods and social policy:
If we can agree on what we mean by ‘science’, then we can begin to
assess the extent to which sociology is scientific.’ To what extent do
sociological arguments and evidence support this view?
Evaluate different views of the relationship between sociology and
social policy.
Assess the view that sociological research cannot and should not be
objective and value-free.
Evaluate the relationship between the theoretical perspective of the
sociologist and their choice of research methods.
Remember, SCLY4 is worth 60% of your A2 mark so it is very
important that you understand the theory and methods as a whole
as well as the crime and deviance topics.
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4. Activity: Individually or in pairs, read the chapters on Functionalism
and Marxism (Moore (2009: 255-259), Browne (2010:335-349) or
Haralambos (2009) and answer the questions below:
Functionalism
1. What is the Organic Analogy?
2. In your own words, identify and briefly explain ‘functional
prerequisites’
3. Using Parson’s GAIL model, explain in your own words what is
meant by society’s:
a. expressive problems
b. need for integration
c. Instrumental problems
d. Need for adaptation
4. Describe Merton’s criticisms of Parson’s theory, making sure you
define and understand the concepts of dysfunction; and manifest
and latent functions.
5. Provide an evaluation (strengths and weaknesses) of Functionalism
Marxism
6. What are the ‘means of production’ and how do they relate to the
‘relations of production’?
7. Identify 2 Neo-Marxists and briefly explain and evaluate their ideas
in relation to traditional Marxism.
8. Evaluate any 2 of either Marxists or Functionalists ideas
9. Explain in your own words what you understand by the following
concepts, giving examples to illustrate them: relative autonomy;
base and superstructure; hegemony; class-consciousness;
exploitation; class conflict.
In your own time you should also be making notes on these
theories for your revision.
We will go through any new ideas/theorists together in class.
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5. Research Methods
Below you will find a list of key issues you should already know and
understand from AS. If you don’t, now is the time to put that right!
Activity: Individually or in pairs, work through the list to create a
comprehensive set of revision notes for each bullet point.
What you should know from AS: Methods
The difference between qualitative and qualitative data, the advantages
and limitations of each, and the type of methods used to obtain them;
The difference between primary and secondary sources, and the
strengths and limitations of that data obtained from each;
The problems of reliability and validity of research evidence;
The considerations over ethics that sociologists must consider when
carrying out social research;
The advantages, uses and limitations of official statistics;
The uses and problems of the experimental methods in sociology,
including issues of validity and the Hawthorne effect;
How the comparative method might be used as a alternative to the
experimental one;
The main features and stages of the social survey, including pilot
surveys;
The various sampling methods sociologists use to gain representative
samples;
The uses, strengths and weaknesses of different types of questionnaire
and interview, including the problems of imposing the validly and
reliability of these methods;
The problem of interviewer bias;
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6. The uses, strengths and weaknesses of participant and non-participant
observation, including the issues of getting in, staying in and getting
out, and overt and covert roles;
The strengths and weaknesses of longitudinal studies, case studies
and life histories;
What is meant by methodological pluralism and triangulation, and why
sociologists might want to use a range of different methods in
sociological research;
A range of theoretical, practical and ethical considerations that
influence choice of topic, choice of method(s) and the conduct of
rea4arch;
The difference between positivism and interpretivism, and how these
two approaches use different research methods.
These notes can be created in the form of written sentences, spider
graphs, bullet points – it’s up to you!
Methods in the SCLY4 Exam
You are expected to already know the strengths and weaknesses of each
research method from your AS course, at A2 you will be expected to
expand your knowledge and understanding of these methods and be able
to evaluate them in relation to researching a particular aspect of crime
and deviance. This section is worth 24 marks.
Likely questions could include:
Identify and briefly explain three problems of studying crime using
participant observation.
Identify and briefly explain three strengths of studying crime by using
victimisation studies.
Assess the strengths and limitations of using unstructured interviews to
study domestic violence.
Assess the strengths and limitations of using interviews or official
statistics when investigating state and war crimes.
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7. Answers
Functionalism
1. What is the Organic Analogy?
2. In your own words, identify and briefly explain ‘functional
prerequisites’
The basic needs for the survival of society
3. Using Parson’s GAIL model, explain in your own words what is
meant by society’s:
a. expressive problems
The problem of maintaining cooperation and social solidarity
ensuring members of society cooperate with one another
without tension and conflict
b. need for integration
This refers to maintaining social harmony; society responds
to potential causes of conflict by providing mechanisms to
reduce the conflict – i.e. religion, family, charities
c. Instrumental problems
Refer to the setting and achieving of social goals and
making sure that society enables its members the ability to
achieve them
d. Need for adaptation
Society must respond to the demands of the environment
by ensuring that members can access things necessary for
survival; i.e providing factories/shops ensures that its
members can work and gain economic rewards.
4. Describe Merton’s criticisms of Parson’s theory, making sure you
define and understand the concepts of dysfunction; and manifest
and latent functions.
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8. Merton was critical of Parson’s assumption that all society’s
institutions performed positive and beneficial functions for society.
Merton acknowledged that institutions can also be dysfunctional
(harmful) for society, for example religion, families, new
technologies. These dysfunctions have the potential to weaken
society and cause social problems. Merton maintains that Parsons
failed to recognise that institutions can perform manifest functions
(with intended and recognized consequences) and also latent
functions (unintended or unrecognized consequences) see Brown
page 341 re hospitals and concluded that Parson’s analysis of
society was far too simple.
5. Provide an evaluation of Functionalism
Strengths
Recognises importance of social structure in understanding
society and how it can constrain an individual’s behavior and how
the major institutions of family, education, economy often wrok
together
Provides and explanation for social stability and why people
generally conform to social rules.
Weaknesses
Too deterministic – individuals as passive receivers or
socialization and conformity
Metanarrative – tries to explain everything from one perspective
Ineffective in explaining social change
Overemphasizes benefits of institutions and ignores dysfunctions
Assume value consensus exists, overemphasises harmony and
ignores conflict
Conservative – supports status quo – if it exists it’s functional, no
need to change
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9. Marxism
6. What are the ‘means of production’ and how do they relate to the
‘relations of production’?
7. Identify 2 Neo-Marxists and briefly explain and evaluate their ideas
in relation to traditional Marxism.
8. Explain in your own words what you understand by the following
concepts, giving examples to illustrate them: relative autonomy;
base and superstructure; hegemony; class-consciousness;
exploitation; class conflict.
9. Provide an evaluation of Marxism
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