A study was carried out on plant density at the experimental field of the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD) Nkolbisson, Yaoundé to determine the appropriate spacing to improve rainfed rice production in the bimodal rainfall forest zone of Cameroon. The experiment was conducted during the main cropping seasons of 2017 and 2018. The planting spacing used were 15cm x 15cm, 20cm x 20cm, 25cm x 25cm and 30cm x 30cm giving the plant populations of 444444, 250000, 160,000 and 111,111 plants / ha respectively using two varieties (Nerica 3 and Nerica 8). The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Significant differences were observed in the growth and yield across the years. Treatments were highly significant concerning the number of days to the appearance of the first flower, the number of days to 50% flowering, and the number of days to 50 % maturity. Plants were taller with more tillers and gave higher yields in 2017 than those of 2018. The spacing significantly affected the plant height, number of tillers, and panicle length for both varieties. The interaction of spacing and variety was significant for the number of tillers per m2 and the number of seeds per panicle, however, it was not for the weight of 1000 grains and the percentage of full bales. The yield components determining yield increase were the number of panicles / m2 and the number of seeds/panicles. Nerica 3 variety gave higher yields compared to the Nerica 8, the closer the spacing, the higher the yield. There were a strong significance and positive correlation between yield, number of panicles, and the number of grain per panicle. The spacing that gives the highest number of panicle per m2 was 15 cm X 15 cm and this spacing gave good yield in the region where the study was carried out.
GPB 311: RICE-Centre of origin, distribution of species, wild relatives and major breeding objectives and procedures for development of varieties and hybrids for improvement yield, adoptability, stability, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance and quality of Rice crop.
GPB 311: RICE-Centre of origin, distribution of species, wild relatives and major breeding objectives and procedures for development of varieties and hybrids for improvement yield, adoptability, stability, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance and quality of Rice crop.
Dichogamy - a term coined by Sprengel as “Dichogamie” refers to a temporal separation of sexual functions
Individual bisexual flowers begin anthesis with a functionally male or female phase and continue anthesis with both sexes or only the other sex functional
In the case of unisexual flowers, flowering begins with one sex, and the other sex comes later
In flowers of an individual or a population, the functionally male and female phases are often synchronized
As complete synchronization without overlapping male and female phases in a population would not only exclude cross-pollination, but all pollination, such synchronization needs to be combined with further elaborations that circumvent this disadvantage.
The simplest pattern is slightly overlapping male and female phases, as reported, e.g. for Anaxagorea dolichocarpa
“Seed priming is a controlled hydration technique in which seeds are soaked in water or low osmotic potential solution to a point where germination related metabolic activities begin in the seeds but radical emergence does not occur.”
For a farmer, “water saving” is likely to mean using less irrigation water to grow a crop – ideally with the same or higher yield and this presentation we come across different irrigation methods in wheat
Genetic variation is crucial for successful barley improvement. Genomic technologies are improving dramatically and are providing access to the genetic diversity within this important crop species. Diverse collections of barley germplasm are being assembled and mined via genome-wide association studies and the identified variation can be linked to the barley sequence assembly. Introgression of favorable alleles via marker-assisted selection is now faster and more efficient due to the availability of single nucleotide polymorphism platforms. High-throughput genotyping is also making genomic selection an essential tool in modern barley breeding.
Irrigation experiments of cocoa tend to concentrate on yield of matured cocoa trees compared to field establishment of young seedlings. Seedling survival leading to optimum population density are fundamental to obtaining maximum yield of crops. The aim of this experiment was to determine the effect of mulching and irrigation on survival of hybrid cocoa clone raised in three different growing media during the establishment phase. The experimental design was a 2 x 2 x 3 factorial arranged in a split-split plot design, with irrigation as the main plot factor, mulching as the subplot factor and growing media as the sub-sub plot factor with three replications. Cocoa pod husk (CPH) was used as the mulching material and each plant received 5kg at a rate of 5.6 t/ha. Irrigation was done daily by applying 4L of water except when it rains. Data was collected on soil moisture, plant height, leaf number, stem girth and plant survival. Results indicated that irrigation and mulching significantly (P<0.01) enhanced soil moisture. Cocoa seedlings raised in topsoil, mulched and irrigated significantly (P<0.05) increased survival rate (94.5%) compared to seedlings raised in soil without irrigation and no mulching (47.1%). Similarly, the survival rate of seedlings raised in growing media M2, mulched and irrigated (93.0%) was significantly (P<0.05) higher than similar seedlings without irrigation (73.4%). However, the survival rate of seedlings raised in M3 without mulching but irrigated was significantly (<0.05) higher 92.1% compared to seedlings raised in M3 mulched and irrigated 67.1%. Irrigation is very important in ensuring high survival rate during early field establishment. Mulching with cocoa pod husk without irrigation did not improve cocoa seedling survival.
Growth and Yield Response of Bread Wheat Variety Grown Under Varying Seed Rat...Premier Publishers
Wheat is among the most important staple crop globally. However, constrained by appropriate agronomic practices. Therefore, the information on the interaction effect of seed rate and weeding period is useful to identify the effective time of weeding for high yield of wheat. Thus, the present study conducted at Amuru district of Horro Guduru Zone, Ethiopia in 2019 cropping season with the aim of identifying optimum seed rate and appropriate time of weeding to improve production and productivity of bread in the area. The experiment was laid down in randomized complete block (RCB) design with three replications. The treatment was arranged in factorial combinations of four weeding intervals (farmer practice, weeding at two weeks after emergence, three weeks after emergence and four weeks after emergence) and three levels of seed rate (125 kg, 150 kg and 175 kg-1).The result showed that days to 50% heading, days to maturity and effective tillers per plant were highly significantly (p<0.01) affected by the interaction effect of weeding time and seed rate. Moreover, interaction effect of weeding time and seed rate was significantly (p<0.01) affected the weed above ground dry biomass. Guizotia scabra (22.47%) with population density (370), Phalaris paradoxa (22.10%) with population (364), Plantago lanceolata (18.58%) with population density (306), and Bidens piloso L. (8.74%) were the dominant weed species competing with wheat in the study area. Minimum relative weed density (26.6%) weed dry biomass (1.7gm) and maximum weed control efficiency (98.08%) was recorded at weeding four weeks after emergence and 175kgha-1seed rate. Thus, the finding suggest grain yield was increased (52.3%) when weeding four weeks after emergence over farmers practice and 13.75% at 175kg seed rate.
Dichogamy - a term coined by Sprengel as “Dichogamie” refers to a temporal separation of sexual functions
Individual bisexual flowers begin anthesis with a functionally male or female phase and continue anthesis with both sexes or only the other sex functional
In the case of unisexual flowers, flowering begins with one sex, and the other sex comes later
In flowers of an individual or a population, the functionally male and female phases are often synchronized
As complete synchronization without overlapping male and female phases in a population would not only exclude cross-pollination, but all pollination, such synchronization needs to be combined with further elaborations that circumvent this disadvantage.
The simplest pattern is slightly overlapping male and female phases, as reported, e.g. for Anaxagorea dolichocarpa
“Seed priming is a controlled hydration technique in which seeds are soaked in water or low osmotic potential solution to a point where germination related metabolic activities begin in the seeds but radical emergence does not occur.”
For a farmer, “water saving” is likely to mean using less irrigation water to grow a crop – ideally with the same or higher yield and this presentation we come across different irrigation methods in wheat
Genetic variation is crucial for successful barley improvement. Genomic technologies are improving dramatically and are providing access to the genetic diversity within this important crop species. Diverse collections of barley germplasm are being assembled and mined via genome-wide association studies and the identified variation can be linked to the barley sequence assembly. Introgression of favorable alleles via marker-assisted selection is now faster and more efficient due to the availability of single nucleotide polymorphism platforms. High-throughput genotyping is also making genomic selection an essential tool in modern barley breeding.
Irrigation experiments of cocoa tend to concentrate on yield of matured cocoa trees compared to field establishment of young seedlings. Seedling survival leading to optimum population density are fundamental to obtaining maximum yield of crops. The aim of this experiment was to determine the effect of mulching and irrigation on survival of hybrid cocoa clone raised in three different growing media during the establishment phase. The experimental design was a 2 x 2 x 3 factorial arranged in a split-split plot design, with irrigation as the main plot factor, mulching as the subplot factor and growing media as the sub-sub plot factor with three replications. Cocoa pod husk (CPH) was used as the mulching material and each plant received 5kg at a rate of 5.6 t/ha. Irrigation was done daily by applying 4L of water except when it rains. Data was collected on soil moisture, plant height, leaf number, stem girth and plant survival. Results indicated that irrigation and mulching significantly (P<0.01) enhanced soil moisture. Cocoa seedlings raised in topsoil, mulched and irrigated significantly (P<0.05) increased survival rate (94.5%) compared to seedlings raised in soil without irrigation and no mulching (47.1%). Similarly, the survival rate of seedlings raised in growing media M2, mulched and irrigated (93.0%) was significantly (P<0.05) higher than similar seedlings without irrigation (73.4%). However, the survival rate of seedlings raised in M3 without mulching but irrigated was significantly (<0.05) higher 92.1% compared to seedlings raised in M3 mulched and irrigated 67.1%. Irrigation is very important in ensuring high survival rate during early field establishment. Mulching with cocoa pod husk without irrigation did not improve cocoa seedling survival.
Growth and Yield Response of Bread Wheat Variety Grown Under Varying Seed Rat...Premier Publishers
Wheat is among the most important staple crop globally. However, constrained by appropriate agronomic practices. Therefore, the information on the interaction effect of seed rate and weeding period is useful to identify the effective time of weeding for high yield of wheat. Thus, the present study conducted at Amuru district of Horro Guduru Zone, Ethiopia in 2019 cropping season with the aim of identifying optimum seed rate and appropriate time of weeding to improve production and productivity of bread in the area. The experiment was laid down in randomized complete block (RCB) design with three replications. The treatment was arranged in factorial combinations of four weeding intervals (farmer practice, weeding at two weeks after emergence, three weeks after emergence and four weeks after emergence) and three levels of seed rate (125 kg, 150 kg and 175 kg-1).The result showed that days to 50% heading, days to maturity and effective tillers per plant were highly significantly (p<0.01) affected by the interaction effect of weeding time and seed rate. Moreover, interaction effect of weeding time and seed rate was significantly (p<0.01) affected the weed above ground dry biomass. Guizotia scabra (22.47%) with population density (370), Phalaris paradoxa (22.10%) with population (364), Plantago lanceolata (18.58%) with population density (306), and Bidens piloso L. (8.74%) were the dominant weed species competing with wheat in the study area. Minimum relative weed density (26.6%) weed dry biomass (1.7gm) and maximum weed control efficiency (98.08%) was recorded at weeding four weeks after emergence and 175kgha-1seed rate. Thus, the finding suggest grain yield was increased (52.3%) when weeding four weeks after emergence over farmers practice and 13.75% at 175kg seed rate.
A field experiment was conducted to study the effects of plant spacing and phosphorus rates on yield related traits and yield of faba bean (Viacia faba L.) at Farmers Training Center, Duna District during 2015 summer cropping season. Three intra-rows spacing (5, 10 and 15 cm), three inter-rows spacing (30, 40 and 50 cm) and three phosphorus rates (0, 46 and 92 kg/ha) were tested. The experiment was laid out as a randomized complete block design (RCBD) and was replicated three times. Improved faba bean variety (Degaga) was ued as test crop. Phenological growth parameters yield and yield related data were collected and their ANOVA was analyzed using GenSta 5th edition and while treatment means were significantly different, they were separated using Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 5% probability level. There was highly significant (P<0.01) effect of the highest rate of phosphorus (92 kg P2O5 ha-1) on days to flowering, days to maturity, leaf area index, effective nodules per plant, plant height , primary tillers plant-1, seeds pod-1, hundred seed weight, grain yield, above ground dry biomass and harvest index. Significantly lowest days to flowering (54.3 days) after emergence and highest plant height (105.63 cm), leaf area (1073 cm2), seeds pod-1(3.57), grain yield (2633 kg ha-1), dry biomass (8108kg ha-1) and harvest index (32.47) were obtained from the highest rate of P (92 kg P2O5 ha-1). For all inter-rows spacing, the leaf area, number of primary tillers, pods plant-1, seeds pod-1 and hundred seed weight were increased as intra-row spacing increase and the highest leaf area (1084 cm2), primary tillers (2.99) and hundred seed weight (54.59 g) were obtained from the widest (50 cm) inter-row spacing, while the highest effective nodules (59.56) and leaf area index (3.51) were resulted from the narrowest (30 cm) inter-row spacing. On the other hand, the interaction effects of inter and intra-row spacing significantly influenced, number of pods plant-1, number of seeds pod-1, above ground dry biomass, grain yield and harvest index. The 30 cm inter-row by 15 cm intra-row spacing gave the highest grain yield (2495 kg ha-1), harvest index (35.79%) and pods plant-1(19.68) whereas the highest dry biomass (8738 kg ha-1) was obtained from 30 cm x 5 cm spacing combination. Thus, it can be concluded that application of 92 kg P2O5 ha-1 rate of phosphorus at 30 x 15 cm spacing combination proved to be superior with respect to grain yield in the study area. However, further study at least for one more cropping season under different soils is required to reach at conclusive recommendation.
An Agronomic field study was conducted at University of Limpopo Experimental farm, Syferkuil, over two summer growing seasons to determine the optimum phosphorus (P) rate and also assess the productivity of pigeonpea under intercrop with maize. Five P rates (0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 kg P ha-1) were evaluated under sole and intercropped pigeonpea. Treatments were laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replicates. Results revealed that variable P fertilizer rates exerted significant effect on pigeonpea grain yield in both seasons. Highest grain yields of 922 and 1141.7 kg ha-1 under sole and intercrop plots, respectively, were achieved at 45 kg P ha-1 during first and second seasons, respectively. However, the predicted optimum grain yield of 734 and 1034 kg ha-1 based on the response model was achieved at 52.67 kg P ha-1 and 42.84 kg P ha-1, in the respective seasons. Intercropping achieved a significantly higher pigeonpea grain yield (+37%) during second year than sole cropping following P addition; with over 21% mean grain yield advantage across the two planting seasons. Hence, depending on the inherent soil-P level, application of 42-53 kg P ha-1 under pigeonpea/maize intercrop represents the range at which P is optimum for maximum pigeonpea grain yield and better returns for farmers.
Combining ability of inbred lines in quality protein maize (QPM) for varietal...Premier Publishers
Information on the combining ability of elite germplasm is essential to maximize their use for variety development. Sixty-six F1 crosses resulted from diallel crosses of 12 QPM inbred lines and two standard checks BHQP542 and Melkassa6Q were evaluated to determine general (GCA) and specific (SCA) combining ability for yield and yield related traits using alpha-lattice design with two replications during the 2013 cropping season at Mechara. Analysis of variance showed that mean squares due to entries were significant for most traits studied, indicates existence of variability among the materials. Mean squares due to crosses and crosses versus checks were also significant for most studied traits. GCA and SCA mean squares revealed highly significant (p<0.01) differences for grain yield and most yield related traits. Inbred lines P1, P3 and P12 were good general combiners as the lines showed significant and positive GCA effects for grain yield. Among the crosses, P2 x P11 and P6 x P8 manifested positive and significant SCA effects for grain yield, indicating high yielding potential of the cross combinations. In general, this study identified inbred lines and hybrid combinations that had desirable expression of important traits which will be useful for the development of high yielding varieties.
Genetic Variability and Morphological Diversity among Open-Pollinated Maize (...Premier Publishers
A study to characterize and determine the magnitude of genetic variation among 60 open-pollinated maize varieties was conducted at two contrasting locations in Sierra Leone during the 2015 wet cropping season. Results revealed that traits such as grain moisture content, anthesis-silking interval, plant and ear heights, number of ears harvested, field weight and grain yield showed moderate to high values of the components of genetic variation while days to 50% anthesis and silking revealed low values of the components of genetic variation. The first two PCA axes explained 54% of the total variation, of which the first principal component (PC1) accounted for 35% and PC2 contributed 19% of the total variation. The cluster diagram grouped the genotypes into seven main clusters and results suggest that crosses involving clusters I and V with any other clusters would produce segregants with low grain yields while the crosses between clusters IV, VI and VII would be expected to manifest higher heterosis and could result in segregants with higher grain yields. There was significant genetic variability observed among the genotypes evaluated thereby suggest the scope to bring about traits improvement of genotypes through direct selection and hybridization.
Wheat is a temperate crop requiring low temperatures for growth and yield. Production of wheat in the Sudan savanna agro-ecological zone of Nigeria is restricted to periods of low temperatures that prevailed from early November to late February. Based on the above, field experiments were conducted in two locations at the University Teaching and Research Farm during 2016/2017 dry season to determine the most appropriate planting date and planting method in the study area. The two locations were: Fadama Teaching and Research farm at Jega (Lat. 12°12.99' N; long. 4° 21.90'; 197m above sea level) and the University orchard at Aliero (lat. 12°18.64'N; long. 4°29.85'; 262 above sea level). Both Jega and Aliero are located within Sudan Savanna ecological zone of Nigeria. Treatments consisted of factorial combinations of four Planting dates (1st November, 15th November 1st December and 15th December 2016) and three Planting Methods (Drilling, Dibbling and Broadcasting). The experiments were laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Results revealed that grain number per spike; grain weight per spike, 1000-grain weight, straw yield, and grain yield were higher when planted on 15th November and 1st December. On the other hand, drilling and dibbling methods resulted to higher stand count, plant height, leave number, leaf area index, days to 50% heading, grain number per spike, grain weight per spike, 1000-grain weight straw and grain yields than broadcasting method. Based on the results of this study, it could be concluded that planting of wheat from 15th November to 1st December coupled with either dibbling or drilling methods of planting gives the best wheat yield in the study area.
Key-words: Ecological Zone, Planting Date, Planting Methods, Savanna, Triticum aestivum
Combining Ability and Heterosis for Grain Yield and Other Agronomic Traits in...Premier Publishers
A varietal diallel of eight parents (3 sweet corn, 1 popcorn and 4 field corn) was evaluated at the Teaching and Research Farms of College of Agriculture, Lafia and Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi respectively, to estimate combining ability, heterosis and gene action. The experiments were laid out as 8x8 α-lattice design with three replications in both locations during the 2018 rain-fed cropping season. Data was collected on emergence count, chlorophyll content, days to tasselling, days to silking, plant height, ear height and grain yield. A significant difference (p≤ 0.05 and p≤ 0.01) in the General Combining Ability (GCA), Specific Combining Ability (SCA) and Reciprocals was observed, with apparent additivity for all the traits. Both negative and positive GCA, SCA and Reciprocal effects and heterosis were observed for all the traits studied. Recurrent selection in TZY-sh2-Y, MAW-sh2-W, SAMMAZ 39, TZEE 2009 and MAY-PC-Y for earliness, dwarfism, vigour and yield was recommended for further breeding towards the improvement of these genotypes in the Southern Guinea Savanna ecology of Nigeria.
Investigation of Correlation Coefficient for Forage and Grain Yield with Rela...Premier Publishers
Oat (Avena sativa L.) is a staple worldwide in both human and animal nutrition. It is mainly grown for livestock, depending on its grain and forage yield in Turkey. This study was based on defining correlation coefficients of some oat genotypes (nine lines and three cultivars) in Konya, Turkey, among fodder and grain yields, and their components. The experimental design of this study was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The correlations were analyzed after harvesting at milk to dough period. The findings illustrated that there was a significant positive correlation between green fodder yield and leaf weights in ten stems, and grain yield and the number of panicles stems per square meter. The highest negative correlations was found between green fodder yield and the number of panicles stems per square meter, and grain yield and 50% flowering periods in addition to green fodder yield. This research suggests that the number of panicles stems per square meter and dry fodder yield would be selection criteria for grain yield. The number of leaves per stem, the number of nodes, and plant height would also be considered for green fodder yield by oat breeders in their program in Anatolia.
Effect of sowing year and seedbed type on yield and yield component in bambar...Innspub Net
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is one of the most promising food legumes in Africa, due to its agronomic and nutritional potential. To take advantage of these attributes, several research programmes gathering agronomic and genetic data are being implemented throughout Africa. In this context, the responses of yield and yield components to year sowing and seedbed type were tested in a three densities (13 900 plants ha−1, 62500 plants ha−1 and 250000 plants ha−1) field experiment using a bambara groundnut landrace with a semi-bunch growth habit. Three years sowing: 2005, 2006 and 2007 were coupled with two seedbed types – raised and flat. A factorial trial using a split-plot design with three replicates was set up to analyse seed yield and plant biomass, as well as nine yield components (Plant spread, Plant height, Number of leaves per plant, Number of pods per plants, Number of seeds per plant, Pods weight per plant, Pod fill ration, Seed harvest index). The seedbed type and year of experiment did not influence significantly the marketable yield and plant biomass (p> 0.05). This result has been attributed to the suitability of the amount and distribution of rainfall and temperature for the production of bambara groundnut at the target site. Based on the trend of yield response, cultivation of landraces of bambara groundnut characterized by a semi-bunch growth habit on flat seedbeds was suggested in woodland savannas of Côte d’Ivoire to enhance seeds yield and reduce labour. Get the full articles at: http://www.innspub.net/ijaar/effect-of-sowing-year-and-seedbed-type-on-yield-and-yield-component-in-bambara-groundnut-vigna-subterranea-l-verdc-in-woodland-savannahs-of-cote-divoire/
The formation of Maize Foundation Inbred Lines: Analysis in Different Perspec...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Maize breeding has made a greater contribution to the increases of maize yield. Maize foundation inbred lines play an irreplaceable role in maize breeding. The formation of foundation lines were the results of many factors, the key factors of which were accord with breeding trends, adapt to environment in much of region, and have appropriate representativeness for particular heterotic group. Foundation lines possess well structure of source and better yield stability, this contribute to their combinations with coordinated source-sink relationship and adapt to close planting. Foundation lines resist major stress factor and adapt to the cropping systems and cultural practices of main maize producing areas. And foundation lines concentrate numerous unique alleles of particular heterotic group, so they are easy to generate heterotic with lines from other heterotic group. For new foundation lines breeding, the existing foundation lines are preferred basic germplasm and cross breeding unites with pedigree selection is effective breeding method. Moreover, we give a integrate breeding method base on rapid advances in plant-breeding technology.
Participatory variety selection of Faba Bean for yield components and yield a...Premier Publishers
Faba bean is one the major highland grain food legumes contributing an enormous amount of protein to the human diet in Ethiopia. Though a lot of improved varieties were released by research centers farmers depend on low yield and local varieties. Participatory variety selection is one of the methods used to evaluate varieties through involvement of users. The participatory faba bean variety selection was conducted during 2014 cropping season at Chiro and Gemachis districts on two farmers training center and three farmers field. Eight released varieties with one local check were laid out in Randomized complete block design in three replications on Farmers training center and single plot on farmer’s field. Agronomic and farmer selection data were collected and analyzed. From all the tested varieties, variety Hachalu was superior in grain yield (1437 kg ha-1) and ( 808 kg ha-1) while Wayu variety was yielded (719 kg ha-1) and 796 (kg ha-1) at Chiro and Gamachis respectively. The lowest grain yield was obtained from Obse (215 kg ha-1) variety at Chiro and Local variety (581 kg ha-1) at Gemachis respectively. In case of farmer preference Hachalu score higher mean value (3.8) followed by Tumsa (3.6) and least mean value was recorded from variety local (2.2). Therefore, the varieties selected by researcher and farmer data Hachalu, Wayu and Tumsa were recommended for further production in these areas.
Influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on...Premier Publishers
The study was conducted to determine influence of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern and time of planting on yield and Gross Monetary Value (GMV) of sorghum. The treatments were included two legume crops, two time of planting, three planting patterns of legumes and sole crops (sorghum, soybean and cowpea). The experiment was conducted in randomized complete block design with three replication. Sorghum/soybean cropping system reduced sorghum grain yield by 23.9% where as sorghum/cowpea reduced by grain yield by 40.3%. The highest LER (1.55) and the lowest LER (1.19) was recorded in sorghum/soybean and sorghum/cowpea intercropping system. Highest gross monetary benefit (20561 Ethiopian birr) accrued from planting two rows of cowpea with the first weeding of sorghum in between the two rows of sorghum. However, it was at par with simultaneous planting of cowpea in double alternate plants within sorghum plants along with two rows of cowpea in between sorghum rows and two rows of soybean planted in between two rows of sorghum with first weeding of sorghum. Legumes crop soybean and cowpea should involved in sorghum cropping either simultaneously planting or sowing at first weeding or hoeing of sorghum.
Similar to Effect of Plant Spacing on the Growth and Yield of Rainfed Rice (Oryza Sativa) in the Bimodal Rain Forest Zone of Cameroon (20)
When breeding diploid potatoes, tetraploid progeny can result from the union of 2n eggs and 2n pollen in 2x-2x crosses. Thirty-three crosses were made to examine tetraploid progeny frequency in 2x-2x crosses. All crosses were between S. tuberosum dihaploids and diploid self-compatible donors, M6 and DRH S6-10-4P17. Using chloroplast counting for ploidy determination, the frequency of tetraploid progeny was as high as 45% in one of the 33 crosses. Based upon single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping, the tetraploid progeny were attributed to bilateral sexual polyploidization (BSP), which is caused by the union of 2n egg and 2n pollen. Dihaploids were identified that produce lower frequencies of 2n eggs. The results of this study suggest that S. tuberosum dihaploids with a high frequency of 2n eggs should be avoided in 2x - 2x crosses for diploid breeding programs.
This study developed a low cost and affordable to small-scale farmers’ indirect air-cooling combined with evaporative cooling (IAC+EC) system for storage of fruit and vegetables under both arid and hot; and humid and hot climatic conditions. Field heat from freshly harvested produce should be immediately removed through cooling to the desired storage temperature. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of IAC+EC system in terms of the cooling time requirement of the fresh tomato fruit. A fresh tomato cooling experiment to remove field heat during the summer month of September in Pietermaritzburg was conducted for 36 hours where the IAC+EC system was compared to storage under ambient conditions. The results showed that 16 hours was required to reduce the flesh temperature of tomatoes to 16.5°C while the flesh temperature for tomatoes under ambient conditions followed the ambient temperature profile with time of storage. The IAC+EC system reduced and maintained the microenvironment air temperature inside the coolers to 16.5°C - 19°C. The ambient temperature varied between 21 and 32°C. The results in this study are evidence that IAC+ EC system can be a choice for farmers, for cooling the fresh by reducing the field temperature after harvest.
Dioscorea rotundata is a staple food crop for millions of people in the tropical and subtropical regions. In vitro germplasm conservation is a very useful tool in yam improvement strategies but very little is known about the genetic integrity and stability of in-vitro conserved yam plants. In this study, 42 accessions from in vitro and field populations were genotyped using 11 microsatellite markers and 23 morphological descriptors to assess variability within and between accessions. Out of the 23 morphological variables used, 13 were identified as most discriminate and were used to cluster the accessions into 4 clusters using the unweighted pair group arithmetic mean average (UPGMA). Accession maintained in field as well as in in-vitro showed high genetic similarity (R2 = 0.91, p-value: 1e-04). Out of the 42 accessions analyzed, nine accessions maintained in the field and in-vitro displayed different genetic profiles. This study provided basic information on the possible somaclonal variation of yam accessions maintained through in-vitro. Further study with advanced tools such as next-generation sequencing is required to elucidate the nature of the observed variation within clones.
Intermolecular interaction is the material basis for cells to achieve their functions, and protein-protein interaction is an important approach to illuminate the regulation network of biological molecules and has important theoretical significance and potential application value for revealing the activity law of life in nature. This paper mainly summarizes and analyzes the new advances and applications of modern biotechnologies in the study of protein-protein interactions, including local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), yeast two-hybrid, GST-Pull-down, bimolecular fluorescence complementation, and coimmunoprecipitation. At the same time, the principles of different research methods for protein-protein interaction and their other applications in the field of life sciences are also discussed, all of these will provide a reference value for the analysis of protein-protein interaction and the molecular regulation mechanism of biomacromolecules.
Field experiment involving five improved onion (Allium cepa L.) varieties and carried out at Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center during the 2018 to 2019 cropping seasons under irrigated condition to identify the best performing variety for seed production to the target areas of Arsi Zone. The onion varieties included in the field experiment were (Nafis, Robaf, Nasic Red, Bombe Red, and Adama Red). The experimental design was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Phenological and growth parameters, seed yield, and yield components were studied. The result showed that Variety had a significant effect on most phonological and growth attributes as well as on yield attributes. The number of days to flowering and vigorously were significantly affected by variety; while plant height, days to boolting and branch number was not significantly influenced by variety. Flower stalks height and diameter, number of umbel per plant, and umbel diameter also significantly affected by variety. Seed yield per umbel and mean seed yield per hectare also showed a significance difference among varieties. The highest seed yield per hectare (1415.89 kg/ha) was recorded from Adama Red and followed by Nafis variety, whereas Nasic rerd, Bombe red and Robaf show no significance difference among each other, Therefore, it can be concluded that use of the improved onion varieties such as Adama red and Nafis is advisable and could be appropriate for onion seed production in the test area even though further testing is required to put the recommendation on a strong basis.
Rubber trees are among the important cultivated crops in Malaysia, and have contributed to the country’s overall economic growth since the 1950s. However, the existing anatomical and morphological studies are relatively insufficient. Currently, Hevea brasiliensis has been cultivated and planted commonly as a commercial planting clone, while Hevea camargoana remains to be a non-cultivated and underutilized rubber species. For many years, there only exists little information both in private plantations and government agencies that have carried out anatomical and morphological assessments on these underutilized species. There is little information about the characteristics of H.camargoana, thus raising the issue among plant breeders on how to best use this underutilized rubber species. This study attempts to investigate the taxonomic values and characteristics of Hevea brasiliensis and Hevea camargoana through anatomical and morphological studies.
Use of distributed electricity generation systems is currently increasing due to their economic and environmental benefits. Agricultural greenhouses require heat and electricity for covering their energy needs while their annual energy requirements vary significantly. Aim of the current work is the investigation of applying various distributed electricity generation systems in greenhouses. A review of different distributed generation systems currently used in various sectors as well as in greenhouses has been implemented. Various technologies are examined utilizing either renewable energies or fossil fuels in very efficient energy systems. Most of them are mature and cost-effective having lower environmental impacts compared with traditional centralized electricity generation technologies. Their use in greenhouses results in many benefits including the creation of an additional income for the farmer, reduction of carbon emissions into the atmosphere and increasing stability of the electric grid. It is suggested that distributed electricity generation systems should be used more in greenhouses when the necessary conditions are favorable.
Grain mold, considered the most important disease of sorghum, is associated with several fungal genera. The disease reduces both yield and quality. In this study, over 300 sorghum seed samples collected from Texas, Florida, and Georgia were evaluated for grain mold severity, seed weight, germination rate, and seed fungal community. Grain mold severity of the seed samples, except for those collected from Cameron, Texas, were rated 3 or higher, indicating that these sorghum lines were moderately susceptible under naturally-infected field conditions during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons. Seed weight across surveyed locations ranged from 1.1 g to 4.0g for samples collected in Texas during the same period. Percent germination rates for samples collected in Texas ranged from 59.6% to 86.7%. Sorghum samples collected from Florida and Georgia exhibited moderately susceptible response to grain mold infection. Mean seed weight was 1.9 g for samples collected from Florida, while in Georgia, mean seed weight was 2.3 g. Germination rate was low for samples collected from Florida and Georgia. Mycological analysis of sorghum seed samples collected from farmers’ fields in Central and South Texas during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons showed Alternaria species as the most frequently isolated fungal genus, accounting for 40% and 42 % in 2016 and 2017, followed by Fusarium incarnatum, F. acuminatum, F. equiseti, & F. semitectum Complex. In Florida and Georgia, Fusarium incarnatum, F. acuminatum, F. equiseti, & F. semitectum Complex was the most frequently recovered fungal species, accounting for 77% and 72% of the total. genera/species isolated from seed samples. Other fungal species, including Curvularia lunata, Bipolaris sp., Colletotrichum sublineola, F. verticillioides, Penicillium sp., Aspergillus flavus, F. thapsinum, F. oxysporum, F. sporotrichioides, F. graminearum, F. proliferatum, and Aspergillus niger were also isolated from sorghum seeds in various frequencies. In conclusion, the presence of large number of fungal genera associated with grain deterioration and their effect on other traits, makes management of this disease complex challenging. To identify grain mold resistant sources in a region, using the most dominant species in that region to screen the sorghum germplasm is recommended.
Potato is the second most important food crop in Kenya after maize. It is a valuable cash and food crop mainly grown by small-scale farmers. Potato is cultivated mainly under rainfed production conditions at altitudes between 1500 and 3000 metre above sea level (masl). Consequently, National Performance Trials (NPTs) test sites are located in these highlands. Recently, potato production has spread to the mid-highlands (1200-1500masl) mostly due to high food demand occasioned by population increase, and migration of small scale farmers from the densely populated highlands to the more spacious midlands. Consequently, there is increased need to breed potato varieties that can grow profitably in the warmer mid-altitudes. This development called for identification of new conventional NPT test sites located in the mid-altitudes. Six mid-altitude sites were identified and client-managed conventional NPTs carried out. Twenty six potato genotypes were evaluated for two seasons. First season crop was planted in 2016 while the second season crop was planted in 2017. There was a significant (p≤ 0.001) effect of genotypes, environments and genotype x environment interaction in the first season. Trans-Nzoia was the highest yielding site. All genotypes yielded between 10 and 25 ton/ha. In the second season, only environments showed significant (p≤ 0.001) effects. Again, Trans-Nzoia was the highest yielding site. Across the two seasons, Trans-Nzoia gave an average yield of 26.96 ton/ha followed by Kabete at 18. 21ton/ha. All the other four sites yielded less than 10 ton/ha. The high yields at Trans-Nzoia and Kabete could be due to higher altitudes in these two sites compared to the others. In order to develop potato varieties that can produce profitably in the warm mid-altitudes, breeding and early generation selections activities should be based in these areas.
The tests for the evaluation of seedling establishment, palatability and acceptability were carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Agricultural Technology and the Food Laboratory of the Department of Home and Rural Economics, Adamawa State College of Agriculture, Ganye, Adamawa State. The experimental designs used were Randomized Complete Block Design and the Completely Randomized Design. Some of the parameters measured were percentage seedling establishment, palatability, and acceptability tests. The highest mean percentage seedling establishment was observed in 12.00g levels of H. suaveolens whole powder treated shelled groundnut seeds (97.67, 97.00, and 94.00) at the three periods of storage. Percentage seedling establishment decreased with a decrease in levels of H. suaveolens whole powder. One of the major constraints to the use of plant materials as an alternative to synthetic insecticides is the issue of standardization in dosage of application. This work has suggested that, if groundnut seeds are to be used for sowing, they should be stored with a 12.00g level of H. suaveolens whole powder for every 300.00g for three months. However, if they are to be used for consumption, they could be stored with a 6.00g level of H. suaveolens whole powder for every 300.00g for at most three months. There was no significant difference between treated and untreated shelled groundnut seeds at the three periods of storage on the acceptability and palatability score of cooked groundnut at all dosages of application. All treatments were within the acceptable score rates even though the two rates of the synthetic insecticides, actellic dust were at the lowest acceptable score rate. The finding also showed that acceptability and palatability decreased with an increase in dosage of application. The periods of storage also had a significant impact on the mean percentage seedling establishment. It was observed that there was a higher percentage of seedling establishment when shelled groundnut seeds were stored from November- January. At this period of the year, the temperature and humidity are usually low and this might have necessitated the high state of inactivity and low performance of the bruchids compared to other periods of storage within the year.
Few years ago National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) launched melon sheller to reduce burden of obtaining melon oil and cake, and to enhance rural women’s productivity. This study looked at the productivity of promoted melon shelling technology and preference by rural women in Nigeria. Data were gathered from the NCAM workshop and survey of melon processors in Niger State. In the workshop, it was found that time allowed for soaking melon and covering with piece of clothes contributed to the productivity of the sheller. Results from survey revealed that 95.1% of the respondents’ preferred Internal Combustion technology and 90.2% liked electric-driven melon shellers over the manual one. Also, 69.5% obtained the shellers from local fabricators rather than NCAM. The technology led to increased turnout of melon (378kg/hr) and reduced wastages to 1.26kg out of 75.6kg. The study concluded that the promoted melon sheller is efficient and have positive implication on the rural women’s productivity and revenue. The study recommends that the rural women should put the melon sheller into its maximum capacity use. The NCAM should extend training to the local fabricators so that they can improve on the technology most especially in the areas of winnowing and washing of melon kernels.
Keeping in view of lack of recommended rates of N and NPS fertilizers, a field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of the newly introduced NPS fertilizer and nitrogen on growth, physiology and above ground biomass of garlic. Four NPS (0-0-0, 78.75-69-12.75, 105-92-17 and 131.25-115-21.25 kg N-P-S ha-1) and three nitrogen fertilizer rates (114.13, 228.26 and 278.33 kg N ha-1) were laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Significantly highest plant height (28.02 cm), leaf diameter (1.27 cm), dry and fresh weight (4.71 g and 6.11 g) and leaf length were recorded on garlic plants supplied with 105-92-17 kg N-P-S ha-1 and also the highest plant height (27.75 cm), leaf length (24.02 cm), fresh and dry weight (6.23 g and 5.04 g) were recorded on garlic plants supplied with 278.33 kg N ha-1. The interaction effect also show a significant effect in almost all the growth parameters; the early day to 50% emergence was recorded from a plot which received 228.26 kg N ha-1 and 105-92-17 kg NPS ha-1 and the highest plant height, leaf length, fresh and dry above ground biomass and leaf diameter were 29.62 cm, 25.60 cm, 6.93 g, 5.59 g and 1.4 cm, respectively were observed by the interaction of 278.33 kg N ha-1 and 105-92-17 kg N-P-S ha-1 with no significant difference with 228.26 N and 78.75-69-12.75 kg N-P-S ha−1. From this one season experiment, fertilizer rates 307.01-69-12.75 kg N-P-S ha−1 could be recommended for garlic production.
In the past, conservation effort has primarily focused on establishment of forest reserves for timber production, with minimal or no consideration to how these natural resources will help sustain or improve livelihoods of adjoining communities. This study examined the contribution of Aramoko forest reserve to the livelihoods of the adjoining communities in Ekiti State. One hundred and twenty pre-tested questionnaires were administered among the products collectors in the study area. Data collected were analysed and the result showed that 78.3 % of the respondents are married with 52.3 % of them male, while 50.8 % of the respondents aged between 51-70 years with 64.1 % having at least secondary education. Twenty-five (25) different products were collected by the respondents in the study area. These products include among others; timber with highest frequency of (120) followed by herbal plants (115), Archantina marginata (105), Thaumatococcus danielli (89), Bridelia ferruginea (70) and Irvingia garbonensis (65). The use of motor cycle accounted for 41.4 % of the respondents means of transportation, while 31.3 % of the respondents sell their product in bit at the village market. Picking, digging, plucking, cutting and uprooting were methods used for harvesting by the respondents while illegal felling (24 %) and indiscriminate bush burning (22.4 %) were the major conservation problem in the study area. Specifically, some of the products harvested are used for food, medicine, fuelwood, herbs and cultural purposes. The study recommends that research should be conducted into how these products can be artificially raised in the nursery for plantation establishment.
Cocoa farmer faces increasing challenging environment through exposure to risks factors which have impacted negatively on their production or output. Since farmers are primary producers and often times lack capacity to control risks factor, it is important to manage this factors. This study examines the cocoa farmers’ risk preferences and crop insurance perception and isolates the drivers of decision to uptake crop insurance among cocoa farmers in Ekiti state. The sample for the study consist of 200 cocoa farmers who were household heads selected through multi-stage sampling across four Local government areas of Ekiti State who are predominantly cocoa producers. Data collected on socio-demographic characteristics, perception of crop insurance and risk preferences, were analyzed using descriptive statistics and binary logistic model. Results showed that majority of the cocoa farmers were without crop insurance, with higher enrolment in Membership of cooperative society, owned their land, larger household size and lower educational level but higher level of farm experience when compared to cocoa farmers who are holding crop insurance. Farmers risk preferences showed no significant difference between farmers with or without insurance. Education (β=0.59), Household size (β=0.0029) and Debt use (β=0.02), Membership of cooperative (β=-4.53), Farming Experience (β=-2.51), Owned Land (β=-2.19) and Non-Farm Income (β=-0.65) were among the significant determinants of insurance uptake. Risk mitigating measures such as provision of necessary incentives such as improved varieties of cocoa seedling, as well as provision of fertiliser and approved pesticides, financial assistance, and simple processing technologies that produce standard cocoa bean plus a re-jigged Nigeria Agricultural Insurance Corporation (NAIC) for an improved discharge of its function are recommended.
Mitigation of climate change requires the decrease of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere and the increasing use of renewable energies replacing fossil fuels. Agricultural greenhouses are energy-intensive agricultural systems using mainly fossil fuels. The use of renewable energies during their operation is limited so far. The possibility of using renewable energies for covering their energy needs has been investigated, focused on the Mediterranean region. Various sustainable energy technologies which are reliable, mature, cost-effective and broadly used in various applications are examined. These include solar-PV systems, low enthalpy geothermal energy, solid biomass burning, co-generation systems, high efficiency heat pumps and reuse of rejected industrial heat. Combined use of these systems in greenhouses can cover all their energy requirements in heat, cooling and electricity, reducing or zeroing their net CO2 emissions into the atmosphere due to operational energy use. It is concluded that depending on their local availability in Mediterranean countries, these benign energy technologies can assist greenhouse crop growers in the reduction of their carbon emissions, contributing in the achievement of the universal goal for climate change mitigation.
Field experiment was carried out under rain-fed conditions during the 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons at the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Agricultural Technology, Adamawa State College of Agriculture, Ganye, solely to develop an integrated pest management for the control of groundnut Aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch) [Homoptera: Aphididae]. The experimental Design used was the Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Parameters measured were, average number of leaves per plot at 6 weeks after sowing, number of branches at 3 weeks after sowing, number of branches at 6 weeks after sowing, number of pods per plot, weight of harvested seeds per plot. The result obtained shows that, there was significant difference among the treatments in all the parameters measured at 0.05 level of probability using the Least Significant Difference (LSD). According to the results recorded, the highest mean yield of groundnut was obtained on plots treated with the combination of chemical and physical control methods (1444g) followed by plots treated with physical, chemical and cultural control methods combined (1296g). The highest mean number of pods per plant was recorded in the combination of physical, chemical and cultural control methods (18.00) followed by chemical and physical control methods as combined (15.00). The work shows that, the cultivation of groundnut with the control of groundnut Aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch) using integrated pest control applied as recommended facilitates better growth and guarantees good crop yield. The use of physical, chemical and cultural control method is profitable in Ganye Area of Adamawa State and is therefore suggested for use to local farmers.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important food crops in the world. Purple rice, as a special rice with important nutritional and health functions, has important scientific significance and application value for genetic improvement of purple rice and breeding of new varieties through in-depth study on its agronomic and related quality traits and products processed, and analysis of its genetic basis. In this paper, the new progress of purple rice in agronomic traits, quality traits, environmental impacts on purple rice and genetic basis of purple rice seed coat in recent years were reviewed and analyzed, and the application prospects of purple rice processing products and purple gene in rice genetic improvement were also prospected. Thus, our results will provide important information and reference for breeding new purple rice varieties with good quality and high yield.
Groundnut is an important oil seed crop, grown throughout the tropics and sub tropics worldwide. It is one of the three economically important oilseed crops grown in Ethiopia. Groundnut is commonly produced by small scale farmers as food and cash crops in the study area. The area has potential to the production of Ground nut for food and nutrition security as well as export commodity. However, scarcity of varieties that fit to the environment is one of the major constraints of production. Therefore, this experiment was conducted to evaluate five Ground nut varieties and select early maturing varieties with considerable yield and agronomic traits. The field experiment was conducted in 2017 and 2018 at Abaya and varieties were planted in Randomized complete block design (RCBD). Data were collected on yield and important agronomic traits. The computed analysis of variance revealed significant variations among varieties for days to maturity, number of primary branches, number of pegs per plants, Grain yield and shelling percentage. The pooled over year mean of varieties indicated , Tole- 1 variety ( Check) is high yielding with mean grain yield of 4174.7kg followed by variety Sedi (3552.5kg/ha) and Babile local (3550.4kg/ha).Variety Sedi has special merit in terms of earliness and therefore recommended for moisture stress areas of Abaya and location with similar agro ecologies while Tole -1 (Standard check) is high yielding varieties and should be used in production until new varieties will be developed through selection/breeding program.
Besides the lack of soil fertilization, the primary biotic stressor limiting the production of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in Indonesia is pest and disease attacks (PDAs). As a part of the efforts to find out the appropriate solution for the farming constraints, a field trial was carried out for 14 months (2015 – 2016) in Genggelang - North Lombok Regency, Indonesia. The main objective of the experiment was to identify the effects of the use of locally-available materials, i.e., liquid-silicate rock fertilizer (LSRF), botanical pesticide (BP) of neem, and black ants (BA) of Doliccoderus thoracic, on PDAs, bean production, and polyphenol and lignin contents of cocoa pod shell. A randomized complete block design was laid out in three blocks, and the treatments were LSRF, LSRF+BP, LSRF+BA, BA, and control. Results reveal that the application of those materials reduced the intensity of pest and disease attacks (e.i., respectively, 6 - 24 % and 3 - 9 % lower than for that of the control), increased 18 – 119 % of bean production, and improved the polyphenol and lignin contents of pod shell. The highest increase (119 %) of bean production was due to the foliar application of LSRF. The positive effect of the treatments, especially the use of LSRF, associated with the improvement of the resistance of cocoa to PDAs and appropriate supply of plant-essential nutrients. Therefore, the foliar application of LSRF may be promoted as a proper method to improve the production of cocoa, especially of that grown on less fertile soils.
Seventeen sesame genotypes were tested at ten environments in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia during 2014-2015 cropping seasons. Randomized Complete Block Designs (RCBD) with three replications was used in the study. According to the GGE bi-plot different sesame growing environments grouped into two mega-environments: The first mega-environment contained the favorable environments Dansha area with a vertex G4 and Sheraro area with winner G3 and the second environment included medium to low environments E2 (Humera-2), E4 (Dansha-2), E5 (Sheraro-1), E7 (Wargiba-1), E8 (Wargiba-2) and E9 (Maykadra) for seed yield. Three mega-environments identified for oil content: The 1st environment contained G12, G7 and G2 in the mega-environment group of Humera, Dansha and Gendawuha, The 2nd environment, Sheraro location contained G9 and the 3rd environment Wargiba, was containing G17. G1 (HuRC-4) identified as an “ideal” genotype and E1 (Humera-1) also identified as an ideal environment the most representative of the overall environments and the most powerful to discriminate genotypes. The multivariate approaches AMMI and GGEbi-plot were better for partitioning the GEI into the causes of variation. According to different stability models, G1, G7, and G3 were high yielder and the most stable both in terms of seed yield and oil content. Moreover, showed yield advantages over the released and local varieties. The stable genotypes recommended for wider areas while G14 and G4 were for specific favorable environments Sheraro and Dansha, respectively.
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Roti Bank Hyderabad: A Beacon of Hope and NourishmentRoti Bank
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Ang Chong Yi Navigating Singaporean Flavors: A Journey from Cultural Heritage...Ang Chong Yi
In the heart of Singapore, where tradition meets modernity, He embarks on a culinary adventure that transcends borders. His mission? Ang Chong Yi Exploring the Cultural Heritage and Identity in Singaporean Cuisine. To explore the rich tapestry of flavours that define Singaporean cuisine while embracing innovative plant-based approaches. Join us as we follow his footsteps through bustling markets, hidden hawker stalls, and vibrant street corners.
2. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
49
Before 2008, irrigated rice and lowland rice cultivation were common in Cameroon, mainly in the areas of
Yagoua, Maga, Lagdo, Menchum Valley, and the plains of Ndop, Mbaw and Mbo. Nowadays, with the introduction
of the NERICA varieties, there are numerous localities constituting emerging basins (Nanga Eboko, Ebolowa,
Galim, Batouri, Akono,) for the production of rice. However, technical challenges still have to be met for the wider
dissemination of rain-fed rice cultivation. Rice is a relatively new crop, exotic and unfamiliar for upland farmers in
many parts of Africa. The optimal plant density in plateau rice production and crop management is an example of
such challenges [7].
Plant spacing plays an important role in rice growth and yield. The optimal density of plants allows the plant to
grow properly with their above-ground and underground parts using more solar radiation and soil nutrients.
Narrower spacing hinders cross-cultural operations. In high plant density, the competition between the plants
increases for the nutrients, air and light, which generally entails a mutual shade, lodging and thus favors a yield in
straw higher than that in grains. This paper aimed to investigate the effects of spacing on agronomic parameters of
rice and optimum densities / spacing to high yield of rice production in Cameroon.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Experimental Site
The study was carried out at the IRAD Nkolbisson site, located in the city of Yaounde, Central Region of
Cameroon during the main planting seasons of 2017 and 2018. Nkolbisson is located at latitude 3.8712° N and
longitude 11.4538° E.
Fig. 1 shows the rainfall data recorded during the two years of experimentation.
Fig-1. Rainfall data during the study period
Source: JICA
2.1.2. Plant Material
The plant material used in our study consisted of two improved varieties (Table 1) of rain-fed rice, the basic
seed of NERICA (New Rice for Africa) varieties from Africa Rice namely NERICA3 (N3), NERICA8 (N8). These
varieties were adopted during participatory varietal selection conducted for the introduction of NERICA varieties in
Cameroon by the Rice Competitiveness Improvement Project in Central Africa.
Table-1. Agronomic characteristics of varieties
Variety Ecology Crop cycle (days) Yield (ton/ha)
NERICA 3 Pluvial 100 - 110 3 – 4
NERICA 8 Pluvial 90 - 100 3 – 4
Source: Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD)
2.2. Method
2.2.1. Experimental Design and Field Management
The trial was set up in a completely randomized block design with three replications. The different treatments
were applied using the following spacing: 15cm x 15cm, 20cm x 20cm, 25cm x 25cm, and 30cm x 30cm
The following operations were carried out:
-Land preparation: The land was cleared and ploughed from the onset of the rains;
- Sowing: seedlings were sown at the rate of 3 to 5 seedlings per stand using the various planting spacing
mentioned above;
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- Thinning: Plants were thinned to two per planting station three weeks after planting.
- Weeding: weeding was done three times manually before harvest;
- Fertilizer application: NPK (20-10-10) was applied at the rate of 200kg/ha two weeks after planting and urea
fertilizer was applied twice at panicle initiation and meiosis at the rate of 50 kg / ha;
- Protection against birds was provided by a net.
2.2.2. Data Collection
The data collected were the number of days to appearance of the first flower, the number of days to 50 %
flowering, the number of days to 50 % maturity, plant height, number of tillers, and yield parameters such as the
number of tillers per m2
, the number of grains per panicle, the weight of thousand seeds, and the percentage of full
bales.
2.2.3. Data Analysis
The data collected were subjected to analysis of variance using SAS software version 9.2 software and the
means of parameters were separated by Tukey's tests at the 5% probability level.
3. Results
3.1. Growth Parameters
There was a significant difference in plant growth between the two years. Treatments were highly significant
according to the number of days for appearance of the first flower, the number of days for 50 % flowering and the
number of days for 50 % maturity, the height of plants, tillers number and the length of panicles (Table 2 and 3).
Table-2. Growth stage characteristics
Source of
Variation
Mean square
Df NDFF ND 50% F ND50%M
Replication 2 9,5ns 75,87*** 1,54ns
Varety 1 32,66** 70,04*** 73,5ns
Treatment 3 9,38ns 57,15*** 208,94**
Error 4,2 3,44 31,9
G mean 67,25 79,12 107,91
Coef var 3,06 2,34 5,23
***highly significant, **very significant, * significant, Ns non-significant, Df degree of freedom, NDFF: Number of days for appearance
of the first flower, ND 50% F: number of days for 50 % flowering, ND50%M: number of days for 50 % maturity G: General, CV:
Coefficient of variation
The number of days for appearance of the first flower was not significantly different for the treatments but was
very significant for the varieties used. It was 68, 41 for Nerica 3 and 66, 08 for NERICA 8 (Fig. 2).
Regarding the number of days to 50 % flowering, there was highly significant difference for the varieties and
treatments. At 77 days NERICA8 reach at 50 % flowering while NERICA 3 reach at 80, 83 days. Treatment 15cm x
15cm reach at 50 % flowering at 76 days and at 30cm x 30cm at 83, 16 days.
As concerns the number of days for 50 % maturity, we noticed a very significant difference between the
treatments at 15cm x 15cm the number of days for 50 % maturity was 104,16 days, at 20cm x 20cm it was 103,5
days, at 25cm x 25cm it was 107,66 days, and 30cm x 30cm, 116,33 days (Fig. 3).
Fig-2. Number of days by variety
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Fig-3. Number of days by treatments
Table-3. Agronomic characteristics
Source of
Variation
Mean square
Df HP TN LP
Year 1 949,61*** 52,22*** 58,61***
Replication 2 281,45* 8,89ns 2,31
Varety 1 426,44*** 1,89ns 0,48
Treatment 3 398,40 44,59*** 9,09**
Error 38,5 1,90 55,20
G mean 106,69 9,21 24,1
Coef var 5,81 2,01 5,7
***highly significant, **very significant, * significant, Ns non-significant, Df degree of freedom, PH: Height of Plant, TN:
Tiller number, PL: panicle lengths, G: General, CV: Coefficient of variation
3.1.1. Plant Height
Plants experienced high growth period from 6th to 14th week in the two years. In 2017, the plants high were
greater than those in 2018 for the two varieties (Fig. 4).
The average height of the plants per variety was not significantly different from week 6 to week 12. However, a
significant difference in plant height was observed from week 14 for spacing of 15cmX15cm and 25cmX 25cm,
30cmX30cm and 15cmX15cm, 15cmX15cm and 20cmX20cm for all the varieties. The plant height of Nerica 3
became significantly higher than that of Nerica 8 for all the spacing (Fig. 5).
Regarding the size of the plants compared to the treatments there was no significant difference in the average
size of the plant from the 6th to the 8th week between these treatments. We noticed a significant difference in size
between these different treatments: 15cmx15cm, 25cmx25cm, 30cmx30cm; treatments such as in 20x20, 25x25, and
30x30 from the 10th week to the 14th
week (Fig. 6).
The behavior of average plant size varied according to the year, plant varieties and densities. Here we observed
that the plant height of Nerica 3 was significantly higher than that of Nerica 8 (Fig. 7).
Fig-4. Plant height by year
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Fig-5. Plant height by variety
Fig-6. Plant height according to treatments
Fig-7. Plant height according to varieties and treatment
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3.1.2. Number of Tillers
Very significant differences were observed in the number of tillers between the two years of evaluation (Fig. 8).
Six weeks after planting, we had an average of 7.5 tillers in 2017 and 6 in 2018. At the 14th week there were 10.22
tillers in 2017and 8.15 in 2018.
The variation of the number of tillers per variety increased progressively for Nerica 3 and Nerica 8, but this
number of tillers was not significantly different from one variety to another. At week 6, the average number of tillers
was 7 for both Nerica 3 and Nerica 8 while it was 9 for at the 14 week for both varieties (Fig 9).
The number of tillers varies significantly with the treatment from 6 to 8 weeks but the difference was not
significant. There was significant variation at the 8th week for the spacing of 30x30 and 15x15, 25x25 and 15x15,
15x15 and 20x20 treatments. At week 12, significant difference was observed for all treatments excepted for 20x20
and 25x25. At the 14th week, the difference became significant between 30x30 and 20x20, 15x15 and 30x30, 15x15
and 25x25 (Fig.10).
At 6 weeks, there was no significant difference in the number of tillers for all treatments per variety. There was
significant difference from the 8th week for both varieties; at 14 weeks, the number of tillers was significantly
different for the two varieties at 30x30 and 20x20, 30x30 and 15x15, 25x25 and 15x15 (Fig. 11).
Fig-8. Tiller number per year
Fig-9. Tiller number by varieties
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Fig-10. Tiller number by treatment
Fig-11. Tiller number by varieties and treatment
3.1.3. Panicle Length
There was a significant difference in panicle lengths over the two years. In 2017, the average panicle length was
25.23 whereas in 2018, it was 23.04. There was no significant difference between the two varieties per year.
Regarding treatments, the panicle length was significantly different for the 30x30 and 15x15 spacing for both years
and both varieties (Fig 12).
Fig-12. Length of Panicle by year, variety and treatment
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3.2. Yield Estimates
Table 4 reveals how certain yield components vary with the treatments and varieties used. There were highly
significant and significant differences in the number of tillers per m2
and the number of seed per panicle.
Table-4. Yield Parameters
Source of
variation
Mean square
Df NT/m2 NS/P %GP w of 1000 seeds Yt/ha
Years 1 5179,34* 3184,68* 2722,24*** 43,49*** 49,37***
Replication 2 6362,22** 123,65ns 27,48ns 1,62ns 7,37*
Variety 1 2330,67* 467,33ns 397,08* 0,5ns 11,666*
Treatments 3 27812,9*** 3062,67* 44,04ns 2,4ns 5,38ns
Error 29 732,9 400,60 25,40 45,29 2,81
G.mean 176,61 142,19 82,14 28,47 5,84
CV 15,32 14,07 6,13 4,3 28,-_
***highly significant, **very significant, * significant, Ns non-significant, Df degree of freedom, NT/m2
: number of tillers per m2
,
NS/P: number of seeds per panicle, W of 1000 seeds: Weight of 1000 seeds, Yt /ha: yield per hectare, G: General, CV: Coefficient of
variation
3.2.1. The Weight of 1000 Grains
There was significant difference in the weight of 1000 seeds between the two years, in the second year the
average was 29.46 and in the first year it was 27.52. There was no significant difference between the two varieties
and the treatments for the two years (Fig.13)
3.2.2. The Number of Tillers per Square Meter
The number of tillers per m2
varied from one year to another. We observed a very significant difference in the
number of tillers between the two years. In the first year, the average was 188.92 and in the second year it was
163.85. There was also a significant difference between the two varieties for each year of experimentation with an
average of 185.44 for 2017 and 167.48 for 2018 year. As regards the treatments, the number of tillers per m2
was
significantly different for the spacing of 25cmx25cm and 15cmx15cm, 15cmx15cm and 20cmx20cm, 30cmx30cm
and 15cmx15cm, 20cmx20cm and 25cmx25cm, 30cmx30cm and 20cmx20cm for both varieties during the two years
of cultivation (Fig.14).
3.2.3. The Number of Seeds Per Panicle
The number of seeds per panicle varied significantly from one year to another. In the first year the average of
this number was 150,067 and in the second year it was 133,979. There was no significant difference between the two
varieties for each genotype per year. With regard to treatments, the number of seeds per panicle was significantly
different for the 25cmx25cm and 15cmx15cm, 30x30 and 15cmx15cm5, 20cmx20cm and 15cmx15cm spacing for
the two growing years and the two varieties (Fig.15).
3.2.4. The Percentage of Full Bales
The percentage of full bales varied with years, treatments and spacing. There was significant difference in the
percentage of seed between for the two years, with an average of 89.43 in the first year and 74.54 in the second year.
Also, there was a significant difference between Nreica3 and Nerica 8 for each year of cultivation with a respective
average of 84.70 and 79.48. There was also no significant difference regarding the treatments, for the two varieties
over the two years (Fig. 16).
Fig-13. The weight of 1000 seeds
9. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
56
Fig-14. Tiller number per m2
Fig-15. Number of seeds per panicle
Fig-16. The percentage of full bales
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57
3.3. Influence of Treatments on Yield and Yield Components
A significant difference was observed in the performance of rice genotypes across the years. In 2017, the
average yield was 6.48t/ha and 4.76 t/ha in the second year (Fig. 17). The significant difference was observed
between the two varieties for each genotype per year with an average of 6.35 for N3 and 5.3 for N8. In contrast,
spacing showed no significant difference in the yields for both varieties during the two growing years. The non-
significant difference of the weight of 1000 seeds and the percentage of full seeds showed that yield components that
determined yield increase were the number of panicles / m2
and the number of seeds / panicles were highly
significant. According to this, the choosing of an appropriate spacing can be based on the number of tillers per m2
and the number of grain per panicles. The spacing that gave the higher number of panicle per m2
was 15 cm X 15
cm and this spacing give the good yield in the region where the study was carry out.
Fig-17. Influence of treatment on the two parameters of yield components
3.4. Correlation between Yield Parameters
There is a correlation between the different parameters used to calculate the yield (Table 5). There is a strong
significant positive correlation between the yield and the tiller number per m2
(0, 70***), and the number of grain
per panicle (0, 48**).
Table-5. Correlation between yield parameters
Parameters Number of
grains/panicle
% of full
grains
TN/m2
Weight of 1000
grains
Yield
Grains/panicle 1
% of full grains 0,539** 1
TN/m2 -0,223 0,16 1
Weight of 1000 grains -0,18 -0,448 -0,334 1
Yield 0,48*** 0,663** 0,706*** -0,37 1
4. Discussion
The results obtained in this study show significant differences in all the parameters collected over the years.
Significant differences were observed in the number of days for 50 % flowering, and the number of days for 50
% maturity per treatments. The tightest plants spacing decrease the number of days for 50 % flowering and maturing.
These results in accordance to those of Schaafsma and Tamburic-Ilincic [8]. Then we can choose the spacing
according to the period of sowing. The results of the current study reveal that high crop density could be applied to
reduce the life cycle of the plant during short raining season.
The plants were found to be taller with more tillers in year 1 than in year 2. Similarly, the yields tended to be
higher in the 1st year than in 2nd year for the two varieties studied. This observation may be due to the variation in
the rainfall between the two years.
The plant height and number of tillers of the plants differed from one treatment to another. The tightest spacing
gave short plants with a very small number of tillers whereas the larger spacing produce tall plants with a high
number of tillers for all varieties used. This result could be due to the nutrient availability of the soil for the most
spaced plants and the competition among them. The variety Nerica 3 was taller and gave more tillers than Nerica 8.
This may be due to the varietal ability that N3 processes compared to N8 for these two parameters. Panicle length
was significantly affected by spacing. Larger spacing gave long panicles. A previous study reveal that the length of
the panicle depends on the plant height [9].
11. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
58
Significant differences were also observed in some of the yield parameters per treatments. The tightest plants
spacing gave large number of panicles per meter square than plants with larger spacing for all varieties. This could
be explained by the fact that the tightest spacing had a greater number of plants per meter square of land than plants
with large spacing despite the fact that the most spaced plants had a greater number of panicles per hills. The large
number of panicles per m2
for plants at the closest spacing was due to the highest number of planting stations per m2
and not to the number of tillers per plant. These results agree with previous works [10, 11]. Furthermore similar
results have also been obtained elsewhere [12, 13].
The results reveal that there was no significant difference for weight of 1000 grains for the two genotypes and
across the years. These results match with those of Shunsuke, et al. [7].
The number of seeds per panicle varied with spacing. The large spacing produced a large number of seeds per
panicle. The plants from the large spacing were tall with long panicles. Similar results were obtained by Shunsuke, et
al. [7].
The percentage of full seed produced did not show any significant difference in treatment for both varieties
during the two years of evaluation. This could be due to a very low proportion of empty seeds for both varieties.
There was a significant difference for the yield for the two varieties. N3 gave more yield per hectare than the
N8. This confirmed the choice of Nerica 3 at the time of the introduction of new Nerica rice varieties through
participatory varietal selection. Nerica3 was the most chosen by the rice producers therefore it was the most
cultivated in the study area and throughout the national territory. N3 had more tillers per hill than N8. It also had
more tillers per m2
than N8 hence the genetic ability of Nerica 3 to give more yield per hectare. The spacing
treatments did not show significant difference in yields for the two varieties used in the study. Among the four yield
components used in this study, two were significantly different from the spreads, while two were not. There was no
significant difference in the weight of 1000 seeds and the percentage of full seeds for both varieties for all spacing,
whereas the differences were highly significant for the number of tillers per m2
and significant for the number of
grains per panicle. These results agree with those of Shunsuke, et al. [7] who found that the weight of 1000 grains
was not significantly different for different spacing. Other authors such as Clerget, et al. [14], Hayashi, et al. [15]
and Nakano, et al. [16] did not find similar results on the effect of plant density on the yield components. Previous
works revealed no significant differences for all yield components [17, 18].
5. Conclusion
The present study reveal that the yield depended on the number of panicles per m2
and the number of seeds per
panicle. Since the number of seeds per panicle increased with spacing while the number of panicle per m2
decreased,
the yield depends on the number of tillers per m2
. This is justified by the strong correlation between the yield and the
number of panicle per m2
. Therefore, the increase in yield per hectare of upland rain-fed rice requires the increase in
the number of planting stations per unit in the study area. The spacing that gave the higher number of panicle per m2
was 15 cm X 15 cm and this spacing gave good yield in the region where the study was carried out.
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